An Introduction To The Rights And Duties Of Women In Islam chapter1

An Introduction To The Rights And Duties Of Women In Islam

BOOK ID 

Author (s): Ayatullah Ibrahim Amini

 Translator (s): Abuzar Ahmadi 

Publisher (s): ABWA Publishing and Printing Center

 Category: Women 

Topic Tags: Social Status of Women Women in Islam

 Miscellaneous information:  An Introduction To The Rights And Duties Of Women In Islam.

 Author: Ibrahim Amini. 

Translator: Abuzar Ahmadi.

 Editor: Carol Eastman. 

Proofreader: Sayyid Baqir Husayni. 

Publisher: ABWA Publishing and Printing Center

 Featured Category: Introducing Islam 

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This book addresses issues on the status and standing of women, their social, political, and cultural activities, housewifery, art, freedom, lifestyle, natural and acquired rights, and other issues from Islamic point of view. 

Publisher’s Foreword

 “In the Name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful” The invaluable legacy of the Household [Ahl al-Bayt] of the Prophet (may peace be upon them all) , as preserved by their followers, is a comprehensive school of thought that embraces all branches of Islamic knowledge. This school has produced many brilliant scholars who have drawn inspiration from this rich and pure resource. It has given many scholars to the Muslim ummah who, following in the footsteps of Imams of the Prophet’s Household (‘a) , have done their best to clear up the doubts raised by various creeds and currents within and without Muslim society and to answer their questions. Throughout the past centuries, they have given well-reasoned answers and clarifications concerning these questions and doubts. To meet the responsibilities assigned to it, the Ahl al-Bayt World Assembly (ABWA) has embarked on a defence of the sanctity of the Islamic message and its verities, often obscured by the partisans of various sects and creeds as p: 1 

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well as by currents hostile to Islam. The Assembly follows in the footsteps of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) and the disciples of their school of thought in its readiness to confront these challenges and tries to be on the frontline in consonance with the demands of every age. The arguments contained in the works of the scholars belonging to the School of the Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) are of unique significance. That is because they are based on genuine scholarship and appeal to reason, and avoid prejudice and bias. These arguments address scholars and thinkers in a manner that appeals to healthy minds and wholesome human nature. To assist the seekers of truth, the Ahl al-Bayt World Assembly has endeavored to present a new phase of these arguments contained in the studies and translations of the works of contemporary Shi‘ah writers and those who have embraced this sublime school of thought through divine blessing. The Assembly is also engaged in edition and publication of the valuable works of leading Shi‘ah scholars of earlier ages to assist the seekers of the truth in discovering the truths which the School of the Prophet’s Household (‘a) has offered to the entire world. The Ahl al-Bayt World Assembly looks forward to benefit from the opinions of the readers and their suggestions and constructive criticism in this area. We also invite scholars, translators and other institutions to assist us in propagating the genuine Islamic teachings as preached by the Prophet Muhammad (S). We beseech God, the Most High, to accept our humble p: 2 

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efforts and to enable us to enhance them under the auspices of Imam al-Mahdi, His vicegerent on the earth (may Allah expedite his advent). We express our gratitude to Ibrahim Amini, the author of the present book, and Abuzar Ahmadi, its translator. We also thank our colleagues who have participated in producing this work, especially the staff of the Translation Office. Cultural Affairs Department Ahl al-Bayt (‘a) World Assembly 

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Section One: The Rights and Duties of Women in Islam The Standing of Women in Islam 

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According to Islam, women and men alike possess the lofty status of humanity because they are both equally human. The Quran identifies humans as “viceroys of God” [khalifat ullah] and reveres them greatly:

 ﻭَ ﻟَﻘَﺪْ ﮐَﺮﱠﱠﻣْﻨَﺎ ﺑَﻨِﯽ ﺁﺩَﻡَ ﻭَ ﺣَﻤَﻠْﻨَﺎﻫُﻢْ ﻓِﯽ ﺍﻟْﺒَﺮﱢﱢ ﻭَ ﺍﻟْﺒَﺤْﺮِ ﻭَ ﺭَﺯَﻗْﻨَﺎﻫُﻢ ﻣﱢﱢﻦَ ﺍﻟﻄﱠﱠﻴﱢﱢﺒَﺎﺕِ ﻭَ ﻓَﻀﱠﱠﻠْﻨَﺎﻫُﻢْ ﻋَﻠَﯽ ﮐَﺜِﻴﺮٍ ﻣﱢﱢﻤﱠﱠﻦْ ﺧَﻠَﻘْﻨَﺎ ﺗَﻔْﻀِﻴﻠﺎً “

And We have surely honored the children of Adam. We have presented them with transport on land and sea, provided them good and pure sustenance, and We have greatly exalted them over many of Our creations. ” [1] Additionally, it states that Adam (‘a) had such high rank that the angels bowed to him:

 ﻓَﺈِﺫَﺍ ﺳَﻮﱠﱠﻳْﺘُﻪُ ﻭَ ﻧَﻔَﺨْﺖُ ﻓِﻴﻪِ ﻣِﻦ ﺭﱡﱡﻭﺣِﯽ ﻓَﻘَﻌُﻮﺍْ ﻟَﻪُ ﺳَﺎﺟِﺪِﻳﻦَ “

So when I shape him and breathe into him of My spirit, fall down, prostrating yourselves unto him. ” [2] All this is due to our humanity. Regarding Adam (‘a) , the Holy Quran declares: 

ﻭَ ﻋَﻠﱠﱠﻢَ ﺁﺩَﻡَ ﺍﻟﺄَﺳْﻤَﺎﺀ ﮐُﻠﱠﱠﻬَﺎ ﺛُﻢﱠﱠ ﻋَﺮَﺿَﻬُﻢْ ﻋَﻠَﯽ ﺍﻟْﻤَﻠﺎَﺋِﮑَﺔِ ﻓَﻘَﺎﻝَ ﺃَﻧﺒِﺌُﻮﻧِﯽ ﺑِﺄَﺳْﻤَﺎﺀ ﻫَﺆُﻟﺎﺀ ﺇِﻥ ﮐُﻨﺘُﻢْ ﺻَﺎﺩِﻗِﻴﻦَ* ﻗَﺎﻟُﻮﺍْ ﺳُﺒْﺤَﺎﻧَﮏَ ﻟﺎَ ﻋِﻠْﻢَ ﻟَﻨَﺎ ﺇِﻟﺎﱠﱠ ﻣَﺎ ﻋَﻠﱠﱠﻤْﺘَﻨَﺎ ﺇِﻧﱠﱠﮏَ ﺃَﻧﺖَ ﺍﻟْﻌَﻠِﻴﻢُ ﺍﻟْﺤَﮑِﻴﻢُ* ﻗَﺎﻝَ ﻳَﺎ ﺁﺩَﻡُ ﺃَﻧﺒِﺌْﻬُﻢ ﺑِﺄَﺳْﻤَﺂﺋِﻬِﻢْ ﻓَﻠَﻤﱠﱠﺎ ﺃَﻧﺒَﺄَﻫُﻢْ ﺑِﺄَﺳْﻤَﺂﺋِﻬِﻢْ ﻗَﺎﻝَ ﺃَﻟَﻢْ

ﺃَﻗُﻞ ﻟﱠﱠﮑُﻢْ ﺇِﻧﱢﱢﯽ ﺃَﻋْﻠَﻢُ ﻏَﻴْﺐَ ﺍﻟﺴﱠﱠﻤَﺎﻭَﺍﺕِ ﻭَ ﺍﻟﺄَﺭْﺽِ ﻭَ ﺃَﻋْﻠَﻢُ ﻣَﺎ ﺗُﺒْﺪُﻭﻥَ ﻭَ ﻣَﺎ ﮐُﻨﺘُﻢْ ﺗَﮑْﺘُﻤُﻮﻥَ

 “And He taught Adam all the Names; then He presented them upon the angels and said: ‘Explain to Me these names, if thou speak truly. ’ They said: ‘Glory be unto Thee! We have no knowledge save what Thou hast taught us. Surely Thou art the All-knowing, the All-wise. ’ He said: ‘O Adam! Explain unto them their names. ’ When he notified them of their names, God said, ‘Did I not tell you that I know the invisible things of the heavens and earth and that I know what you reveal and what you hide? ’” [1] The fact that noble Adam (‘a) was able to understand the Names and explain them was due to his unique genesis as a human and men and women are equal in this genesis. In general, all extolments in the Quran and Hadith regarding humans encompass both women and men. There is no verse in the Quran that reproaches women for being women. Therefore, according to Islam and the Quran, men and women are equally human, they are no different in worth, and they possess common responsibilities in managing the society, some of which are enumerated below: 

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[1]: - Surah Isra’ 17: 70. 

[2]: - Surah Hijr 15: 29. 

[1]: - Surah Baqarah 2: 31-33. 

Common Responsibilities of Men and Women

 I. Men and women are both equally responsible for reproduction and continuance of the human race. The Holy Quran states: 

ﻳَﺎ ﺃَﻳﱡﱡﻬَﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﱠﱠﺎﺱُ ﺇِﻧﱠﱠﺎ ﺧَﻠَﻘْﻨَﺎﮐُﻢ ﻣﱢﱢﻦ ﺫَﮐَﺮٍ ﻭَ ﺃُﻧﺜَﯽ ﻭَ ﺟَﻌَﻠْﻨَﺎﮐُﻢْ ﺷُﻌُﻮﺑًﺎ ﻭَ ﻗَﺒَﺎﺋِﻞَ ﻟِﺘَﻌَﺎﺭَﻓُﻮﺍ ﺇِﻥﱠﱠ ﺃَﮐْﺮَﻣَﮑُﻢْ ﻋِﻨﺪَ ﺍﻟﻠﱠﱠﻪِ ﺃَﺗْﻘَﺎﮐُﻢْ ﺇِﻥﱠﱠ ﺍﻟﻠﱠﱠﻪَ ﻋَﻠِﻴﻢٌ ﺧَﺒِﻴﺮٌ “

O Humans! Surely, I have created you as p: 4 

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males and females and have made you into [diverse] races and tribes that you may know one another. Verily, the most noble among you before Allah is the most pious of you. Truly, Allah is All-knowing, All-aware. ” [1] It also declares:

 ﻳَﺎ ﺃَﻳﱡﱡﻬَﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﱠﱠﺎﺱُ ﺍﺗﱠﱠﻘُﻮﺍْ ﺭَﺑﱠﱠﮑُﻢُ ﺍﻟﱠﱠﺬِﯼ ﺧَﻠَﻘَﮑُﻢ ﻣﱢﱢﻦ ﻧﱠﱠﻔْﺲٍ ﻭَﺍﺣِﺪَﺓٍ ﻭَ ﺧَﻠَﻖَ ﻣِﻨْﻬَﺎ ﺯَﻭْﺟَﻬَﺎ ﻭَ ﺑَﺚﱠﱠ ﻣِﻨْﻬُﻤَﺎ ﺭِﺟَﺎﻟﺎً ﮐَﺜِﻴﺮًﺍ ﻭَ ﻧِﺴَﺎﺀً ﻭَ ﺍﺗﱠﱠﻘُﻮﺍْ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪَ ﺍﻟﱠﱠﺬِﯼ ﺗَﺴَﺎﺀﻟُﻮﻥَ ﺑِﻪِ ﻭَ ﺍﻟﺄَﺭْﺣَﺎﻡَ ﺇِﻥﱠﱠ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪَ ﮐَﺎﻥَ ﻋَﻠَﻴْﮑُﻢْ ﺭَﻗِﻴﺒًﺎ “

O humans! Fear your Lord who created you from a single soul and from it created its mate and from the pair of them has disseminated many men and women. So be pious toward Allah, in whose name you ask for assistance, and do not cut off from your relatives. Surely, Allah watches over you. ” [2] In these verses, women and men are identified as two chief pillars of the society. Additionally, piety is regarded as the criterion for the superiority of men and women. II. The Quran identifies faith in God, edification [tahdhib] and purification of the soul of all evils [tazkiyah], piety, and performing good deeds as the only path to human salvation. In this context, it does not differentiate between women and men. In fact, it regards both equally worthy of spiritual advancement, perfection, and proximity to God [qurb ila allah]. God, the Sublime, has stated in the Quran: 

ﻣَﻦْ ﻋَﻤِﻞَ ﺻَﺎﻟِﺤًﺎ ﻣﱢﱢﻦ ﺫَﮐَﺮٍ ﺃَﻭْ ﺃُﻧﺜَﯽ ﻭَ ﻫُﻮَ ﻣُﺆْﻣِﻦٌ ﻓَﻠَﻨُﺤْﻴِﻴَﻨﱠﱠﻪُ ﺣَﻴَﺎﺓً ﻃَﻴﱢﱢﺒَﺔً ﻭَ ﻟَﻨَﺠْﺰِﻳَﻨﱠﱠﻬُﻢْ ﺃَﺟْﺮَﻫُﻢ ﺑِﺄَﺣْﺴَﻦِ ﻣَﺎ ﮐَﺎﻧُﻮﺍْ ﻳَﻌْﻤَﻠُﻮﻥَ “

Whosoever performs a good deed, whether man or woman, while having faith in p: 5 

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Allah, We shall assuredly restore them with a good and pure life and We shall recompense them with rewards according to the best of what they have done. ” [1] Allah also declares: 

ﻓَﺎﺳْﺘَﺠَﺎﺏَ ﻟَﻬُﻢْ ﺭَﺑﱡﱡﻬُﻢْ ﺃَﻧﱢﱢﯽ ﻟﺎَ ﺃُﺿِﻴﻊُ ﻋَﻤَﻞَ ﻋَﺎﻣِﻞٍ ﻣﱢﱢﻨﮑُﻢ ﻣﱢﱢﻦ ﺫَﮐَﺮٍ ﺃَﻭْ ﺃُﻧﺜَﯽ ﺑَﻌْﻀُﮑُﻢ ﻣﱢﱢﻦ ﺑَﻌْﺾٍ “

Therefore their Lord granted their prayers. Verily, I shall not suffer the work of any agent among you to be lost, whether man or woman; you are all members of the same race. ” [2] The Quran praises righteous and worthy women and men similarly and thus states:

 ﺇِﻥﱠﱠ ﺍﻟْﻤُﺴْﻠِﻤِﻴﻦَ ﻭَ ﺍﻟْﻤُﺴْﻠِﻤَﺎﺕِ ﻭَ ﺍﻟْﻤُﺆْﻣِﻨِﻴﻦَ ﻭَ ﺍﻟْﻤُﺆْﻣِﻨَﺎﺕِ ﻭَ ﺍﻟْﻘَﺎﻧِﺘِﻴﻦَ ﻭَ ﺍﻟْﻘَﺎﻧِﺘَﺎﺕِ ﻭَ ﺍﻟﺼﱠﱠﺎﺩِﻗِﻴﻦَ ﻭَ ﺍﻟﺼﱠﱠﺎﺩِﻗَﺎﺕِ ﻭَ ﺍﻟﺼﱠﱠﺎﺑِﺮِﻳﻦَ ﻭَ ﺍﻟﺼﱠﱠﺎﺑِﺮَﺍﺕِ ﻭَ ﺍﻟْﺨَﺎﺷِﻌِﻴﻦَ ﻭَ ﺍﻟْﺨَﺎﺷِﻌَﺎﺕِ ﻭَ ﺍﻟْﻤُﺘَﺼَﺪﱢﱢﻗِﻴﻦَ ﻭَ ﺍﻟْﻤُﺘَﺼَﺪﱢﱢﻗَﺎﺕِ ﻭَ ﺍﻟﺼﱠﱠﺎﺋِﻤِﻴﻦَ ﻭَ ﺍﻟﺼﱠﱠﺎﺋِﻤَﺎﺕِ ﻭَ ﺍﻟْﺤَﺎﻓِﻈِﻴﻦَ ﻓُﺮُﻭﺟَﻬُﻢْ ﻭَ ﺍﻟْﺤَﺎﻓِﻈَﺎﺕِ ﻭَ ﺍﻟﺬﱠﱠﺍﮐِﺮِﻳﻦَ ﺍﻟﻠﱠﱠﻪَ ﮐَﺜِﻴﺮًﺍ ﻭَ ﺍﻟﺬﱠﱠﺍﮐِﺮَﺍﺕِ ﺃَﻋَﺪﱠﱠ ﺍﻟﻠﱠﱠﻪُ ﻟَﻬُﻢ ﻣﱠﱠﻐْﻔِﺮَﺓً ﻭَ ﺃَﺟْﺮًﺍ ﻋَﻈِﻴﻤًﺎ “

Verily, for Muslim men and women, for faithful men and women, for obedient men and women, for truthful men and women, for patient men and women, for humble men and women, for almsgiving men and women, for fasting men and women, for men and women who guard their private parts, and for men and women who remember God much, Allah has prepared forgiveness and a mighty reward. ” [3] The Quran has indicated worthy women in history just as it has mentioned such men and has commended them greatly. For example, regarding Saint Maryam (Mary) (‘a) , the Quran states:

 ﻓَﺘَﻘَﺒﱠﱠﻠَﻬَﺎ ﺭَﺑﱡﱡﻬَﺎ ﺑِﻘَﺒُﻮﻝٍ ﺣَﺴَﻦٍ ﻭَ ﺃَﻧﺒَﺘَﻬَﺎ ﻧَﺒَﺎﺗًﺎ ﺣَﺴَﻨًﺎ ﻭَ ﮐَﻔﱠﱠﻠَﻬَﺎ ﺯَﮐَﺮِﻳﱠﱠﺎ ﮐُﻠﱠﱠﻤَﺎ ﺩَﺧَﻞَ ﻋَﻠَﻴْﻬَﺎ ﺯَﮐَﺮِﻳﱠﱠﺎ ﺍﻟْﻤِﺤْﺮَﺍﺏَ ﻭَﺟَﺪَ ﻋِﻨﺪَﻫَﺎ 

ﺭِﺯْﻗﺎً ﻗَﺎﻝَ ﻳَﺎ ﻣَﺮْﻳَﻢُ ﺃَﻧﱠﱠﯽ ﻟَﮏِ ﻫَﺬَﺍ ﻗَﺎﻟَﺖْ ﻫُﻮَ ﻣِﻦْ ﻋِﻨﺪِ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪِ ﺇﻥﱠﱠ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪَ ﻳَﺮْﺯُﻕُ ﻣَﻦ ﻳَﺸَﺎﺀ ﺑِﻐَﻴْﺮِ ﺣِﺴَﺎﺏٍ “

So her Lord accepted her with gracious favor and nurtured her well and appointed Zachariah to foster her. Whenever Zachariah came to her in her sanctuary, he would see that she had (special) food. He said, ‘O Maryam! From where does this come to you? ’ She answered, ‘This is from Allah. Verily, Allah provides sustenance to whomever He wills without reckoning. ’” [1] Furthermore, it proclaims:

 ﻭَ ﺇِﺫْ ﻗَﺎﻟَﺖِ ﺍﻟْﻤَﻠﺎَﺋِﮑَﺔُ ﻳَﺎ ﻣَﺮْﻳَﻢُ ﺇِﻥﱠﱠ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪَ ﺍﺻْﻄَﻔَﺎﮎِ ﻭَ ﻃَﻬﱠﱠﺮَﮎِ ﻭَ ﺍﺻْﻄَﻔَﺎﮎِ ﻋَﻠَﯽ ﻧِﺴَﺎﺀ ﺍﻟْﻌَﺎﻟَﻤِﻴﻦَ “

And (remember) when the angels said, ‘O Maryam! Allah has chosen you and made you pure and has preferred you above all women in creation. ’” [2] Regarding Asiyah (‘a) , Pharaoh’s wife, God the Most High has stated: 

ﻭَ ﺿَﺮَﺏَ ﺍﻟﻠﱠﱠﻪُ ﻣَﺜَﻠًﺎ ﻟﱢﱢﻠﱠﱠﺬِﻳﻦَ ﺁﻣَﻨُﻮﺍ ﺍِﻣْﺮَﺃَﺓَ ﻓِﺮْﻋَﻮْﻥَ ﺇِﺫْ ﻗَﺎﻟَﺖْ ﺭَﺏﱢﱢ ﺍﺑْﻦِ ﻟِﯽ ﻋِﻨﺪَﮎَ ﺑَﻴْﺘًﺎ ﻓِﯽ ﺍﻟْﺠَﻨﱠﱠﺔِ ﻭَ ﻧَﺠﱢﱢﻨِﯽ ﻣِﻦ ﻓِﺮْﻋَﻮْﻥَ ﻭَ ﻋَﻤَﻠِﻪِ ﻭَ ﻧَﺠﱢﱢﻨِﯽ ﻣِﻦَ ﺍﻟْﻘَﻮْﻡِ ﺍﻟﻈﱠﱠﺎﻟِﻤِﻴﻦَ “

And Allah cites Pharaoh’s wife as an example for the believers when she said, ‘O Lord! Build for me, close to Yourself, a home in Paradise and deliver me from Pharaoh and his works and deliver me from evil doing peoples. ’” [3] Virtuous Fatimah (‘a) , the honorable daughter of the Prophet (S) , is also one of these superior women. The Verse of Purification [ayah tathir] is about Fatimah (‘a) , her husband, father, and children. The exalted Lord declares:

 ﺇِﻧﱠﱠﻤَﺎ ﻳُﺮِﻳﺪُ ﺍﻟﻠﱠﱠﻪُ ﻟِﻴُﺬْﻫِﺐَ ﻋَﻨﮑُﻢُ ﺍﻟﺮﱢﱢﺟْﺲَ ﺃَﻫْﻞَ ﺍﻟْﺒَﻴْﺖِ ﻭَﻳُﻄَﻬﱢﱢﺮَﮐُﻢْ ﺗَﻄْﻬِﻴﺮًﺍ “

Surely, Allah only wishes to remove from you, People of p: 7 

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the House, all uncleanness and purify you thoroughly. ” [1] Regarding these lofty women, the Messenger of Allah (S) stated:

 ﻗﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﯽ (ﻉ): ﺳﻴّﺪﺍﺕ ﺃﻫﻞ ﺍﻟﺠﻨﺔ ﺃﺭﺑﻊ: ﻣﺮﻳﻢ ﺑﻨﺖ ﻋﻤﺮﺍﻥ، ﻭ ﻓﺎﻃﻤﺔ ﺑﻨﺖ ﻣﺤﻤّﺪ، ﻭ ﺧﺪﻳﺠﺔ ﺑﻨﺖ ﺧﻮﻳﻠﺪ، ﻭ ﺁﺳﻴﺔ ﺑﻨﺖ ﻣﺰﺍﺣﻢ ﺇﻣﺮﺃﺓ ﻓﺮﻋﻮﻥ. “

The great women of paradise are four: Maryam daughter of ‘Imran, Fatimah daughter of Muhammad, Khadijah daughter of Khuwaylid, and Asiyah daughter of Muzahim, wife of Pharaoh. ” [2] As you can see, the Quran does not regard being a woman an impediment to advancement, elevation, and attaining human perfections [fadhayil-e insani]; rather, it regards women to be as worthy as men in attaining perfections. Of course, some women have been reproached in the Quran, such as Prophet Noah’s (‘a) wife, Prophet Lot’s (‘a) wife, and the wife of the idolater, Abu Lahab. [3] In a similar manner, various men have also been reproached due to their contemptible works, such as Pharaoh, Nimrod, and Abu Lahab. III. Islam regards women and men as two pillars of the society that have a common role in the emergence, formation, and management of the society and have an equal share in all its aspects. Men and women are both part of the community and they uniformly benefit from the virtues of a righteous society and suffer from the destructive effects of its corruption. Consequently, the responsibility of correct management and reformation of the society is charged to both women and men. God most high states in the Quran:

 ﻭَ ﺍﻟْﻤُﺆْﻣِﻨُﻮﻥَ ﻭَ ﺍﻟْﻤُﺆْﻣِﻨَﺎﺕُ ﺑَﻌْﻀُﻬُﻢْ ﺃَﻭْﻟِﻴَﺎﺀ ﺑَﻌْﺾٍ ﻳَﺄْﻣُﺮُﻭﻥَ ﺑِﺎﻟْﻤَﻌْﺮُﻭﻑِ ﻭَ ﻳَﻨْﻬَﻮْﻥَ ﻋَﻦِ ﺍﻟْﻤُﻨﮑَﺮِ 

ﻭَ ﻳُﻘِﻴﻤُﻮﻥَ ﺍﻟﺼﱠﱠﻠﺎَﺓَ ﻭَ ﻳُﺆْﺗُﻮﻥَ ﺍﻟﺰﱠﱠﮐَﺎﺓَ ﻭَ ﻳُﻄِﻴﻌُﻮﻥَ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪَ ﻭَ ﺭَﺳُﻮﻟَﻪُ ﺃُﻭْﻟَﺌِﮏَ ﺳَﻴَﺮْﺣَﻤُﻬُﻢُ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪُ ﺇِﻥﱠﱠ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪَ ﻋَﺰِﻳﺰٌ ﺣَﮑِﻴﻢٌ “

And male and female believers are protecting friends of each other; they enjoin righteousness and forbid evil, they perform salat [1] and pay their alms-tax, they obey Allah and His Messenger. Upon these, Allah shall have mercy. Truly, Allah is Almighty, All-wise. ” [2] It is true that presence in jihad and fighting against enemies is not obligatory [wajib] for women. However, they have not been relieved of any other social responsibilities: enjoining virtues [amr be ma‘ruf] and forbidding evils [nahi az munkar]; protecting the religion and its sanctities; propagating Islam; struggling against violation and infringement; defending the rights of the deprived and oppressed; cooperating in good works; aiding the destitute and afflicted; nursing the sick, elderly, and invalids; campaigning against ethical and social corruption; proper fostering and nurturing of the young; augmenting knowledge in the society; fortifying the just government of Islam; upholding Islamic values; contributing to the financial well-being of the family and country; and many other common responsibilities have been given to men and women alike. IV. Other common duties of women and men are acquisition of knowledge and decipherment of the secrets of the cosmos, and their utilization for increasing welfare. Men and women are both human and thereby responsible and capable in this regard. Islam greatly emphasizes pursuing knowledge and even identifies it as an obligation. Thus, Imam Sadiq (‘a) has quoted from the Messenger of Allah (S) that

: ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻗﺎﻝ 

ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ): «ﻃﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ ﻓﺮﻳﻀﺔ ﻋﻠﯽ ﮐﻞّ ﻣﺴﻠﻢ، ﺃﻟﺎ ﺇﻥّ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻳﺤﺐّ ﺑﻐﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻢ. 

“Obtaining knowledge is obligatory for all Muslims. Know that Allah truly loves seekers of knowledge. ” [1] Moreover, Imam Baqir (‘a) has stated:

 ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﺟﻌﻔﺮ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻋﺎﻟﻢ ﻳﻨﺘﻔﻊ ﺑﻌﻠﻤﻪ، ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺳﺒﻌﻴﻦ ﺃﻟﻒ ﻋﺎﺑﺪ. » 

“A learned person who uses their knowledge is better than seventy thousand devout worshipers [‘abid]. ” [2] There are hundreds of similar Hadith on this subject and there is no differentiation between men and women in this respect. As Muslims, women are charged with gaining knowledge in order to become self-sufficient; especially regarding sciences that are essential such as therapeutics, dentistry, psychiatry, pharmaceutics, nursing, obstetrics, experimental sciences, education, psychology, biology, chemistry, management, accounting, Islamic sciences, exegesis, religious belief, religious jurisprudence, history, literature, art, linguistics, language, law, economics, etc. Women comprise around half the society; therefore, they must share in its administration. This is why female scientists and specialists of necessary and relevant sciences must equal the men in these fields in order that they are self-sufficient. Half of all hospitals, clinics, universities, schools, academies, pharmacies, laboratories, academies of religion, and Islamic promotional institutes must be assigned to women. Additionally, all maternity hospitals must be female specific and have only as many male specialists as needed for their male patients, though unfortunately this is not so. This defect or disparity may be for the following two reasons: a. The selfishness, egocentricity, and injustice of men throughout history, which has prevented women from attaining their lawful rights in independence and has kept p: 10 

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women dependent b. The self-negligence, absence of self-knowledge, opulence-centricity, and aestheticism of women who have not understood the correct manner to vindicate their rights and have fallen astray Women must understand their true roles and responsibilities. They must endeavor to realize independence, self-reliance, and their lawful rights and must be careful not to deviate from the correct path as many others who have diverged. 

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[1]: - Surah Hujurat 49: 13. 

[2]: - Surah Nisa’ 4: 1. 

[1]: - Surah Nahl 16: 97. 

[2]: - Surah Ali ‘Imran 3: 195. 

[3]: - Surah Ahzab 33: 35. 

[1]: - Surah Ali ‘Imran 3: 37. 

[2]: - Ibid 3: 42. 

[3]: - Surah Tahrim 66: 11. 

[1]: - Surah Ahzab 33: 33. 

[2]: - Kashf ul-Ghummah, vol. 2, p. 76. 

[3]: - Surah Tahrim 66: 10; and Surah Masad 111: 4. 

[1]: - Salat is the daily ritual prayer of Muslims, which must be performed five times a day in a specific form. [trans. ] 

[2]: - Surah Tawbah 9: 71. 

[1]: - Kafi, vol. 1, p. 30. 

[2]: - Ibid, p. 33. 

Women and Freedom 

 point

 Like men, women have been created free and desire to live without the intrusion of others. The inclination for freedom is a natural and legitimate desire. However, can humans truly live independently and unassisted in a community? Humans have need of their fellow creatures. They must observe the rights and wants of others and must restrict their individual freedoms to the limits of societal laws. Such restrictions are not adverse to humans; they benefit humanity. Additionally, living in complete freedom and unquestionably following one’s carnal desires injures humankind. In such cases, restrictions must be endorsed since it is to everyone’s true advantage. Even though Islam respects humanity’s right to freedom, it regards absolute freedom neither possible nor compliant with humankind’s individual or social good. Hence, by observing the spiritual, material, worldly, otherworldly, individual, and social benefit of humans, Islam has decreed ordinances, laws, and responsibilities and has thus confined the freedom of humans. Some of these limiting rules and injunctions may not be pleasing to some people and they may regard them obtrusive to their personal freedom. However, these assessments are an effect of shortfalls in correctly understanding one’s p: 11 

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own true interests. If humans were fully aware of their true interests, they would not deem religious restrictions detriments to their freedom and would willingly consent to these limitations. The freedom of women is also such. Islam respects the freedom of women and observes it in its legislation, provided that it is not contrary to the true interests of the collective human society. Thus, in cases that freedom is at variance with the true interests of women, Islam prefers restrictions to unconditional latitude. Herein several of women’s liberties shall be briefly reviewed: 

1. Freedom in Work 

As previously stated, Islam regards women as one of the two pillars of the society and has given them various responsibilities. Women cannot and must not be crippled members or useless constituents of the society. Islam regards work as an obligation and a superior form of worship and warns its supporters to avoid idleness, vanity, and retirement from work. There are many Hadith regarding this issue, some of which are mentioned below. The Messenger of Allah (S) has stated:

 ﻗﺎﻝ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ): «ﺍﻟﻌﺒﺎﺩﺓُ ﺳَﺒْﻌُﻮﻥَ ﺟﺰﺀً ﺃﻓﻀﻠﻬﺎ ﻃَﻠَﺐُ ﺍﻟﺤَﻠﺎﻝ. »

 “Worship has seventy elements; the noblest of which is endeavoring to gain legitimate income. ” [1] The noble Musa ibn Ja‘far (‘a) has declared: 

ﺑﺸﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﻫﺎﻥ، ﻗﺎﻝ ﺳﻤﻌﺖ ﺍﺑﺎﻟﺤﺴﻦ ﻣﻮﺳﯽ (ﻉ) ﻳﻘﻮﻝ: «ﺍﻥّ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻋﺰّﻭﺟﻞّ ﻳُﺒﻐِﺾ ﺍﻟْﻌَﺒﺪ ﺍﻟﻨّﻮﺍﻡ ﺍﻟْﻔﺎﺭﻍ. » 

“Surely Allah, the Honored, the Glorified, disfavors languid and idle servants. ” [2] According to Islam, working is not a right but a duty and men and women are no different in this regard. Women must also perform their social duties and they p: 12 

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are free in choosing their occupation. However, taking heed of the special physical and spiritual genesis of women, not all lines of work are consistent with their eminence or abilities and other members of the society. Women are exquisite, sensitive, and beautiful beings. Because of this exquisiteness and beauty, they have much allure and influence with men. Thus, they must endeavor to choose professions that can keep their spiritual and physical beauty impeccable for their husbands. Thus working in onerous and physically taxing jobs is not advisable for women; these include professions such as driving heavy vehicles, overnight jobs, farming, animal husbandry, and working in mines, ironworks, cement and automobile factories, etc. These occupations are usually beyond the normal physical capacities of women and endanger their beauty, exquisiteness, and allure, which is neither to the benefit of women nor to that of their spouses. Consequently, Islam advises that men not allow women to perform laborious work. Amir al-Mu’minin [1] said to his son Imam Hassan (‘a): 

ﻓﯽ ﺭﺳﺎﻟﺔ ﺃﻣﻴﺮﺍﻟﻤﺆﻣﻨﻴﻦ ﺇﻟﯽ ﺍﻟﺤﺴﻦ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻟﺎ ﺗﻤﻠﮏ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺄﻣﺮ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺠﺎﻭﺯ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ؛ ﻓﺈﻥّ ﺫﻟﮏ ﺃﻧﻌﻢ ﺑﺤﺎﻟﻬﺎ، ﻭ ﺃﺭﺧﯽ ﻟﺒﺎﻟﻬﺎ، ﻭ ﺃﺩﻭﻡ ﻟﺠﻤﺎﻟﻬﺎ؛ ﻓﺈﻥّ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﺭﻳﺤﺎﻧﺔ ﻭ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﺑﻘﻬﺮﻣﺎﻧﺔ. »

 “Do not tolerate that women do things beyond their abilities because this is more suitable for their status, it calms their hearts, and preserves their beauty; surely women are like fragrant flowers and not warriors. ” [2] Another important issue is that the exquisiteness, beauty, and allure of women are as natural as the inability of most men in resisting p: 13 

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sexual temptation. Thus, it is in the interests of women and the society in general that they choose professions with less contact with non-kindred men, especially youths and unmarried men, in order to avoid probable harm to their faith and reputation and aid the health and virtue of the society. We must also bear in mind that women are sentimental and affectionate beings and can be more quickly affected by their emotions than men. Hence, it is not in the interests of women or the society that they take professions that require increased decisiveness or brutality such as judgeship and military and disciplinary professions. The final issue that women must take in mind in choosing a line of work is observing the rights of their children and preserving the family. If a woman is married and has children, she must be heedful of the fact that she has an even greater responsibility, which is caring for her husband and correctly rearing their children; a charge that the unique genesis of women has put upon them. It is true that women are free in selecting their careers, but they must choose one that does not weaken the benign cornerstones of the family and that does not deprive children of maternal love and affection and correct education and training. In such cases, the course of action must be determined by mutual agreement and men must abandon inappropriate prejudices, selfishness, egocentricity, and patriarchal habits and must impartially allow women to choose suitable careers in proportion with p: 14 

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the interests of the family as a whole. 

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[1]: - Kafi, vol. 5, p. 78. 

[2]: - Ibid, p. 84. 

[1]: - Amir al-Mu‘minin (meaning: Commander of the Faithful) is the title of Imam ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib ('a). [trans. ] 

[2]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 168. 

2. Freedom in Proprietorship Islam respects the ownership of both women and men. A woman may gain and become owner of properties and wealth through industry, commerce, dower, gifts, working as a staff member, or any other legitimate method. She may gain profit from these methods and no one has the right to appropriate her possessions without her consent, whether they be her father, mother, husband, or children. The Quran declares:

 ﻭَ ﻟﺎَ ﺗَﺘَﻤَﻨﱠﱠﻮْﺍْ ﻣَﺎ ﻓَﻀﱠﱠﻞَ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪُ ﺑِﻪِ ﺑَﻌْﻀَﮑُﻢْ ﻋَﻠَﯽ ﺑَﻌْﺾٍ ﻟﱢﱢﻠﺮﱢﱢﺟَﺎﻝِ ﻧَﺼِﻴﺐٌ ﻣﱢﱢﻤﱠﱠﺎ ﺍﮐْﺘَﺴَﺒُﻮﺍْ ﻭَ ﻟِﻠﻨﱢﱢﺴَﺎﺀ ﻧَﺼِﻴﺐٌ ﻣﱢﱢﻤﱠﱠﺎ ﺍﮐْﺘَﺴَﺒْﻦَ ﻭَ ﺍﺳْﺄَﻟُﻮﺍْ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪَ ﻣِﻦ ﻓَﻀْﻠِﻪِ ﺇِﻥﱠﱠ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪَ ﮐَﺎﻥَ ﺑِﮑُﻞﱢﱢ ﺷَﯽْﺀٍ ﻋَﻠِﻴﻤًﺎ

 “Do not covet that by which Allah has elevated some of you over others. To men is allotted what they earn and to women is allotted what they earn. So ask Allah of His bounty. Surely Allah has absolute knowledge of all things. ” [1] 

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[1]: - Surah Nisa’ 4: 32. 

3. Freedom in Marriage Like men, women are completely free in marriage and choosing their spouse. A mature woman may not be married without her consent and such a marriage is void. No one has the right to force a woman to marry or to choose a specific husband for her, even one’s father, mother, sibling, or grandparents. Imam Sadiq (‘a) has stated: 

ﻣﻨﺼﻮﺭ ﺑﻦ ﺣﺎﺯﻡ، ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﺗﺴﺘﺄﻣﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﮑﺮ ﻭ ﻏﻴﺮﻫﺎ ﻭﻟﺎ ﺗﻨﮑﺢ ﺇﻟّﺎ ﺑﺄﻣﺮﻫﺎ. » 

“Women must be asked permission for their marriage, virgin or otherwise, and marriage is not correct without the woman’s behest. ” [2] Concerning a man who wanted to marry off his sister, Imam Sadiq (‘a) stated:

 ﺩﺍﻭﺩ ﺑﻦ ﺳﺮﺣﺎﻥ، ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻓﯽ ﺭﺟﻞ ﻳﺮﻳﺪ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺰﻭّﺝ ﺃﺧﺘﻪ، ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻳﺆﺍﻣﺮﻫﺎ، ﻓﺈﻥ ﺳﮑﺘﺖ ﻓﻬﻮ ﺇﻗﺮﺍﺭﻫﺎ، ﻭ ﻟﺎ ﺗﻨﮑﺢ ﺇﻟّﺎ ﺑﺄﻣﺮﻫﺎ. »

 “She must be asked permission; if she is reticent, her silence is permission. However, marriage is not correct without the woman’s behest. ” [1] Hence, in order for a marriage to be correct, the acquiescence of the woman is necessary regardless of whether she is a virgin or not. Here, the question arises that: in order for a marriage to be correct, in addition to the woman’s consent, is her father or grandfather’s consent also a requirement? The answer of this question has been expounded thus: If the woman is not a virgin (hence previously married) , the consent of her father or grandfather is not necessary and she may decide to remarry independently. Various Hadith have emphasized this fact. Regarding the marriage of a non-virgin woman, Imam Sadiq (‘a) has stated:

 ﺣﻠﺒﯽ ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻓﯽ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﺍﻟﺜﻴّﺐ ﺗﺨﻄﺐ ﺇﻟﯽ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ، ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻫﯽ ﺃﻣﻠﮏ ﺑﻨﻔﺴﻬﺎ، ﺗﻮﻟّﯽ ﺃﻣﺮﻫﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺎﺀﺕ ﺇﺫﺍ ﮐﺎﻥ ﮐﻔﻮﺍً ﺑﻌﺪ ﺃﻥ ﺗﮑﻮﻥ ﻗﺪ ﻧﮑﺤﺖ ﺭﺟﻠﺎً ﻗﺒﻠﻪ. »

 “She has more authority over herself than any other person. If she has had a previous marriage, she can choose her desired spouse for remarriage if he is good for her. ” [2] Imam Sadiq (‘a) has also stated:

 ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻟﺎ ﺑﺄﺱ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺰّﻭﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﮐﺎﻧﺖ ﺛﻴّﺒﺎً ﺑﻐﻴﺮ ﺇﺫﻥ ﺃﺑﻴﻬﺎ ﺇﺫﺍ ﮐﺎﻥ ﻟﺎ ﺑﺄﺱ ﺑﻤﺎ ﺻﻨﻌﺖ. »

 “There is no problem with a non-virgin (previously married) woman getting married without the consent of p: 16 

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her father if she has no defects. ” [1] However, if a woman is a virgin (and previously unmarried) , almost all religious jurisprudents [faqih] regard the permission of the father or grandfather necessary for her marriage and have substantiated this claim with various Hadith. Imam Sadiq (‘a) has declared: 

ﺃﺑﻮ ﻣﺮﻳﻢ، ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﺍﻟﺠﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﮑﺮ ﺍﻟﺘﯽ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺃﺏٌ ﻟﺎ ﺗﺘﺰﻭّﺝ ﺇﻟّﺎ ﺑﺈﺫﻥ ﺃﺑﻴﻬﺎ. »

 “A virgin woman who has a father must not marry without her father’s consent. ” [2] The freedom of virgin women in choosing a husband has only been restricted in this case to the permission of their fathers or grandfathers. Even so, this restriction is not only not harmful to the woman, it is primarily in her good interests. Because virgin women have not married before, they have no experience is this matter and cannot completely investigate their suitor due to their modesty. In this case, they need a compassionate, loving, and experienced advisor who can give them guidance. Hence, a father or grandfather is the best person for aiding the woman in this important and fateful issue. Consultation with and permission of the father has an additional benefit. It is a type of respect towards the father, seeking his approval and cooperating with him. Doubtless, this will have a great part in improvement of family relations, the future life of the married couple, and the solving of potential problems. However, it must be stated that there are two exceptions to this rule: First, when the woman’s father or grandfather is not available for p: 17 

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obtaining permission. Second, when it is time for the woman to marry and she has a fitting suitor but her father brings undue excuses and refuses everyone. In these two cases, religious jurisprudents can give the woman permission to marry a desired and worthy suitor in lieu of her father’s permission. 

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[2]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 284. 

[1]: - Ibid, p. 274. 

[2]: - Ibid, vol. 2, p. 269. 

[1]: - Ibid, p. 272. 

[2]: - Ibid, p. 270. 

4. Freedom in Seeking Knowledge Unmarried women may freely endeavor to acquire knowledge and no one has the right to prevent them from learning. However, a married woman must observe the rights of her spouse and children and must confer with her husband on this issue in order to reach a consensus. The conditions surrounding this issue are similar to those of freedom in work. Of course, this refers to studying outside the home at educational facilities such as a university; studying at home in one’s leisure time is not detrimental to familial life. 

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5. Freedom in Residence Selection Single women are at liberty to choose a home for themselves, though wedded women must adhere to their husband’s place of residence. Providing a house is up to men and it is their prerogative. Naturally, the home must be within the dignity of the family, consistent with the husband’s capital, and such that the peace and welfare of the family is assured. If they are living in a shared home (with other relatives) and the woman requests a private home, if it is in his power the man must acquiesce. In addition, if their house is small or if they are under pressure for some reason and the woman asks for a p: 18 

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new residence the man must accept if he is able. These are examples of kind association [mu‘ashirat bi ma‘ruf] that God enjoins in the Quran:

 ... ﻭَ ﻋَﺎﺷِﺮُﻭﻫُﻦﱠﱠ ﺑِﺎﻟْﻤَﻌْﺮُﻭﻑِ... “

And consort with your wives in kindness. ” [1] It is also stated in the Quran as follows:

 ... ﻭَ ﻟَﺎ ﺗُﻀَﺎﺭﱡﱡﻭﻫُﻦﱠﱠ ﻟِﺘُﻀَﻴﱢﱢﻘُﻮﺍ ﻋَﻠَﻴْﻬِﻦﱠﱠ... 

“And harass them not, so as to straiten life for them. ” [2] Even though choosing a home is the man’s prerogative, the woman may stipulate as an annex to the marriage contract that she select a dwelling place or request that she be given dwelling rights. If the man accepts the annex, he must abide by his wife’s desires in this matter and if he violates her request, he is a sinner. 

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[1]: - Surah Nisa’ 4: 19. 

[2]: - Surah Talaq 65: 6. 

Women and Hijab 

 point 

Hijab literally means covering and is a type of clothing that covers a woman’s body. Islam instructs women to cover their bodies (except their hands and face) from non-mahram [3] men. The necessity of having Hijab can be extracted from Quranic verses and various Hadith. Here three verses on this issue are presented. 

-An Introduction To The Rights And Duties Of Women In Islam

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[3]: - The word non-mahram denotes males that are not close family members in front of whom women must cover themselves and behave modestly. The relationships of mahram men (close family members) are explained in more detail and mentioned in verses in ensuing sections. [trans. ] 

First Verse Allah, Most High, has stated in the Quran: 

ﻗُﻞ ﻟﱢﱢﻠْﻤُﺆْﻣِﻨِﻴﻦَ ﻳَﻐُﻀﱡﱡﻮﺍ ﻣِﻦْ ﺃَﺑْﺼَﺎﺭِﻫِﻢْ ﻭَ ﻳَﺤْﻔَﻈُﻮﺍ ﻓُﺮُﻭﺟَﻬُﻢْ ﺫَﻟِﮏَ ﺃَﺯْﮐَﯽ ﻟَﻬُﻢْ ﺇِﻥﱠﱠ ﺍﻟﻠﱠﱠﻪَ ﺧَﺒِﻴﺮٌ ﺑِﻤَﺎ ﻳَﺼْﻨَﻌُﻮﻥَ* ﻭَ ﻗُﻞ ﻟﱢﱢﻠْﻤُﺆْﻣِﻨَﺎﺕِ ﻳَﻐْﻀُﻀْﻦَ ﻣِﻦْ ﺃَﺑْﺼَﺎﺭِﻫِﻦﱠﱠ ﻭَ ﻳَﺤْﻔَﻈْﻦَ ﻓُﺮُﻭﺟَﻬُﻦﱠﱠ ﻭَ ﻟَﺎ ﻳُﺒْﺪِﻳﻦَ ﺯِﻳﻨَﺘَﻬُﻦﱠﱠ ﺇِﻟﱠﱠﺎ ﻣَﺎ ﻇَﻬَﺮَ ﻣِﻨْﻬَﺎ ﻭَﻟْﻴَﻀْﺮِﺑْﻦَ ﺑِﺨُﻤُﺮِﻫِﻦﱠﱠ ﻋَﻠَﯽ ﺟُﻴُﻮﺑِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﻭَ ﻟَﺎ ﻳُﺒْﺪِﻳﻦَ ﺯِﻳﻨَﺘَﻬُﻦﱠﱠ ﺇِﻟﱠﱠﺎ ﻟِﺒُﻌُﻮﻟَﺘِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﺃَﻭْ ﺁﺑَﺎﺋِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﺃَﻭْ ﺁﺑَﺎﺀ ﺑُﻌُﻮﻟَﺘِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﺃَﻭْ ﺃَﺑْﻨَﺎﺋِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﺃَﻭْ ﺃَﺑْﻨَﺎﺀ ﺑُﻌُﻮﻟَﺘِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﺃَﻭْ ﺇِﺧْﻮَﺍﻧِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﺃَﻭْ ﺑَﻨِﯽ ﺇِﺧْﻮَﺍﻧِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﺃَﻭْ ﺑَﻨِﯽ ﺃَﺧَﻮَﺍﺗِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﺃَﻭْ ﻧِﺴَﺎﺋِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﺃَﻭْ ﻣَﺎ ﻣَﻠَﮑَﺖْ ﺃَﻳْﻤَﺎﻧُﻬُﻦﱠﱠ ﺃَﻭِ ﺍﻟﺘﱠﱠﺎﺑِﻌِﻴﻦَ ﻏَﻴْﺮِ ﺃُﻭْﻟِﯽ ﺍﻟْﺈِﺭْﺑَﺔِ ﻣِﻦَ ﺍﻟﺮﱢﱢﺟَﺎﻝِ ﺃَﻭِ ﺍﻟﻄﱢﱢﻔْﻞِ ﺍﻟﱠﱠﺬِﻳﻦَ ﻟَﻢْ 

ﻳَﻈْﻬَﺮُﻭﺍ ﻋَﻠَﯽ ﻋَﻮْﺭَﺍﺕِ ﺍﻟﻨﱢﱢﺴَﺎﺀ ﻭَ ﻟَﺎ ﻳَﻀْﺮِﺑْﻦَ ﺑِﺄَﺭْﺟُﻠِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﻟِﻴُﻌْﻠَﻢَ ﻣَﺎ ﻳُﺨْﻔِﻴﻦَ ﻣِﻦ ﺯِﻳﻨَﺘِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﻭَ ﺗُﻮﺑُﻮﺍ ﺇِﻟَﯽ ﺍﻟﻠﱠﱠﻪِ ﺟَﻤِﻴﻌًﺎ ﺃَﻳﱡﱡﻬَﺎ ﺍﻟْﻤُﺆْﻣِﻨُﻮﻥَ ﻟَﻌَﻠﱠﱠﮑُﻢْ ﺗُﻔْﻠِﺤُﻮﻥَ

 “Tell the believing men to cast down their eyes (from indecent looks) and guard their modesty. This is purer for them. Surely Allah is aware of all they do. And tell the believing women to cast down their eyes (from indecent looks) and guard their modesty and refrain from revealing their adornments save those that are (naturally) manifest and cast their veils over their bosoms and not reveal their adornments save for their husband, father, husband’s father, sons, husband’s sons, brothers, brother’s sons, sister’s sons, their fellow women (in faith) , their bondservants, their dependants (such as dullards) who do not have sexual desires, or children who do not know of women’s private parts; and they must not stomp their feet in order to reveal their hidden ornaments. And repent to Allah, O believers, haply you may attain bliss. ” [1] These verses pertain to the Hijab of women and contain several issues that must be expounded: First, they ask the faithful, men and women, to secure their eyes and not leer. Men must not stare at women and women must not stare at men. The word Ghudh [ﻏﺾ] means decreasing and closing. Ghudha basar means shortening one’s gaze and not staring. Sometimes, persons look at others and looking is not their purpose. At other times, people look lustfully at others for sexual pleasure; this is called leering. Leering is a cause for human p: 20 

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corruption and thus it has been forbidden. However, looking without hedonistic desires is not forbidden (haram) , because it is necessary for sociability and communal living. Next, these verses direct men and women to guard their private parts [furuj]. Furuj is plural of farj which means pudendum [‘aurat]. Guarding one’s farj or covering it signifies preserving one’s chastity and modesty by ghudha basar—meaning not staring—and observing Hijab. Then, they address women and declare: 

… ﻟﺎ ﻳُﺒﺪِﻳﻦَ ﺯِﻳﻨَﺘَﻬُﻦﱠﱠ ﺇِﻟّﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻇَﻬَﺮَ ﻣِﻨﻬﺎ...

 “Do not reveal your adornments save those that are manifest. ” Zinat means adornment. There are various types of adornment. First are those that are detached from the body, such as earrings, necklaces, rings, hairclips, bracelets, and decorative clothes. Second are those that are applied to the body, such as eyeliner, nail polish, and hair color. Adornment spoken of in this verse encompasses both these types. Women are advised to eschew revealing their adornments for non-mahram men and thus prevent drawing the attention of men and arousing their sexual inclinations. Next, the statement

 ﺇﻟّﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻇَﻬَﺮَ ﻣِﻨﻬﺎ 

gives women permission to refrain from hiding their evident adornments—that are naturally obvious—such as Surmah (a specific type of natural eyeliner) , eyebrow coloring, henna, rings, veil coloring, robes, and shoes. Since women are part of the society and have social responsibilities, naturally, non-mahram men see will certainly see their face, hands, and obvious adornments and covering these would be difficult. For this reason, Islam gives them permission to perform their duties without covering these. Correspondingly, various Hadith also interpret adornments p: 21 

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mentioned in this verse in this manner. Zurarah cited from Imam Sadiq (‘a) that he interpreted the words of God

, ﺇﻟّﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻇَﻬَﺮَ ﻣِﻨﻬﺎ, 

in the following manner: 

ﺯﺭﺍﺭﺓ، ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻓﯽ ﻗﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻋﺰّﻭﺟﻞّ: {ﺇِﻟّﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻇَﻬَﺮَ ﻣِﻨﻬﺎ} ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﺍﻟﺰﻳﻨﺔ ﺍﻟﻈﺎﻫﺮﺓ ﺍﻟﮑﺤﻞ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺗﻢ. »

 “Manifest adornments consist of Surmah and rings. ” [1] Abubasir states: 

ﺃﺑﻮﺑﺼﻴﺮ، ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: ﺳﺄﻟﺘﻪ ﻋﻦ ﻗﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻋﺰّﻭﺟﻞّ {ﻟﺎ ﻳُﺒﺪِﻳﻦَ ﺯِﻳﻨَﺘَﻬُﻦﱠﱠ ﺇِﻟَّﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻇَﻬَﺮَ ﻣِﻨﻬﺎ} ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺗﻢ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﮑﺔ ﻭ ﻫﯽ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﺐ. »

 “I asked Imam Sadiq (‘a) for the interpretation of God’s words,

 ﻟﺎ ﻳُﺒﺪِﻳﻦَ ﺯِﻳﻨَﺘَﻬُﻦﱠﱠ ﺇِﻟَّﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻇَﻬَﺮَ ﻣِﻨﻬﺎ, 

he stated: Manifest adornments consist of rings and bracelets. ” [2] After speaking of Hijab the Quran states:

 ... ﻭَﻟْﻴَﻀْﺮِﺑْﻦَ ﺑِﺨُﻤُﺮِﻫِﻦﱠﱠ ﻋَﻠﯽٰ ﺟُﻴُﻮﺑِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ...

 Khumur (ﺧُﻤُﺮ) is the plural form of khimar (ﺧِﻤﺎﺭ) which is a kind of large veil or headscarf. Also, juyub is the plural form of jayb which means shirt collar. It is said that at the time of the Prophet of Allah (S) women wore shirts that were open at the collar and revealed a portion of their breasts. Additionally, they put the sides of their headscarves behind their ears; therefore, their ears, earrings, neck, and a portion of their breasts were bared. Consequently, this verse directs women to cast their headscarves over their open neckline in order to cover their ears, earrings, neck, and breasts. Tabarsi interprets this verse thus: “Khumur (ﺧُﻤُﺮ) is the plural form of khimar (ﺧِﻤﺎﺭ) which is a kind of veil or headscarf that falls over one’s neck and neckline. This verse instructs women to cast their p: 22 

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headscarves over their breasts in order to cover their necks, since formerly, they would cast their headscarves behind their heads, which caused their breasts to be revealed. ” [1] Following this statement, the Quran states:

 ... ﻭَ ﻟﺎ ﻳَﻀْﺮِﺑْﻦَ ﺑِﺄَﺭْﺟُﻠِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﻟِﻴُﻌْﻠَﻢَ ﻣﺎ ﻳُﺨْﻔِﻴﻦَ ﻣِﻦ ﺯِﻳﻨَﺘِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ... 

In order to completely observe modesty and prevent social corruption, women are advised to refrain from walking heavily to keep non-mahram men from hearing the sounds of their adornments. This is because such sounds may cause men to become sexually aroused and hence cause problems in the society, especially for youths and single men. Several important ethical and Islamic issues can be derived from this verse: 1. Men and women (who aren’t married to each other) must abstain from visual indulgence and looking at each other in a lustful manner. People must not look at one another for sexual pleasure. 2. Women must not reveal their hidden adornments to men. 3. Women are obligated to wear their veil or headscarf in such a manner that their ears, earrings, their neck and the surrounding area, and their breasts are completely covered. 4. In order to honor public modesty and counteract moral corruption, women are advised to tread softly so the sounds of their steps do not cause corruption in men. 5. Women are not required to cover their obvious adornments. 

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[1]: - Surah Nur 24: 30-31. 

[1]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 201. 

[2]: - Ibid. 

[1]: - Majma‘ ul-Bayan, vol. 7, p. 138. 

Second Verse Allah, the Exalted, has stated is the holy Quran:

 ﻳَﺎ ﺃَﻳﱡﱡﻬَﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﱠﱠﺒِﯽﱡﱡ ﻗُﻞ ﻟﱢﱢﺄَﺯْﻭَﺍﺟِﮏَ ﻭَ ﺑَﻨَﺎﺗِﮏَ ﻭَ ﻧِﺴَﺎﺀ ﺍﻟْﻤُﺆْﻣِﻨِﻴﻦَ ﻳُﺪْﻧِﻴﻦَ ﻋَﻠَﻴْﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﻣِﻦ ﺟَﻠَﺎﺑِﻴﺒِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﺫَﻟِﮏَ ﺃَﺩْﻧَﯽ ﺃَﻥ ﻳُﻌْﺮَﻓْﻦَ ﻓَﻠَﺎ ﻳُﺆْﺫَﻳْﻦَ ﻭَ ﮐَﺎﻥَ ﺍﻟﻠﱠﱠﻪُ ﻏَﻔُﻮﺭًﺍ ﺭﱠﱠﺣِﻴﻤًﺎ 

“O Prophet! Tell your wives and daughters p: 23 

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and believing women to draw their veils (cloaks) close unto themselves. This is better so that they may be recognized (as modest women) and therefore not be molested and Allah is much-forgiving and merciful. ” [1] The dictionary of Qamus defines jalbab (ﺟَﻠْﺒﺎﺏ) as a loose shirt or garment for women or a garment worn on top of other clothes, which covers the other clothes completely. It is also defined as a veil or headscarf. Raghib has defined jalbab as a shirt and scarf in his book, Mufradat. Moreover, in Al-Munjid, jalbab is defined as a loose shirt or garment. Therefore, this verse may be interpreted thus: Tell women to wear their robe such that it covers the whole body and hides it from the eyes of outsiders. If they do so, they will be known as chaste women. Thus, they will avoid the attention of strangers and will not be molested. This verse indicates that Muslim women must wear conservative, concealing, and plain clothes when leaving their house and thus prevent ethical and social corruption. Such conduct is advantageous to women, men, and youths in general. 

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[1]: - Surah Ahzab 33: 59. Ḥ 

Third Verse The Quran states:

 ﻳَﺎ ﻧِﺴَﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻨﱠﱠﺒِﯽﱢﱢ ﻟَﺴْﺘُﻦﱠﱠ ﮐَﺄَﺣَﺪٍ ﻣﱢﱢﻦَ ﺍﻟﻨﱢﱢﺴَﺎﺀ ﺇِﻥِ ﺍﺗﱠﱠﻘَﻴْﺘُﻦﱠﱠ ﻓَﻠَﺎ ﺗَﺨْﻀَﻌْﻦَ ﺑِﺎﻟْﻘَﻮْﻝِ ﻓَﻴَﻄْﻤَﻊَ ﺍﻟﱠﱠﺬِﯼ ﻓِﯽ ﻗَﻠْﺒِﻪِ ﻣَﺮَﺽٌ ﻭَ ﻗُﻠْﻦَ ﻗَﻮْﻟًﺎ ﻣﱠﱠﻌْﺮُﻭﻓًﺎ * ﻭَ ﻗَﺮْﻥَ ﻓِﯽ ﺑُﻴُﻮﺗِﮑُﻦﱠﱠ ﻭَ ﻟَﺎ ﺗَﺒَﺮﱠﱠﺟْﻦَ ﺗَﺒَﺮﱡﱡﺝَ ﺍﻟْﺠَﺎﻫِﻠِﻴﱠﱠﺔِ…

 “O women of the prophet! You are not as other women, if you are pious. So speak not tenderly to make those who have sickness in their heart lustful, but speak in a normal manner. And p: 24 

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stay in your homes and do not flaunt yourselves as in the Age of Ignorance. ” [1] In this verse, women are given three recommendations: 1. That they not speak in a tender and soft manner since speaking in this manner may incite the lusts of impure men 2. That they stay at home 3. That they not display themselves before outsiders without the necessary covering and not flaunt themselves and show off their beauty and cosmetics Even though this verse addresses the wives and daughters of the prophet, its instructions apply to all women. It must be said that the statement 

ﻗَﺮْﻥَ ﻓﯽ ﺑُﻴُﻮﺗِﮑُﻦﱠﱠ 

does not mean that the wives of the Prophet (S) and other women must always stay at home and never leave the house; because, as I have previously stated, women are true members of the society and have responsibilities that necessitate leaving the house. Moreover, at the time of the Prophet (S) women would exit their homes and they would present themselves at mosques. They would listen to the words of the Prophet (S) and would ask their religious questions. Indeed, many women are narrators of Hadith and many narrators transmit Hadith from them. They would participate in battles and would treat and minister to the wounded. The Prophet’s (S) wives would also participate in battles, although they were not commissioned to fight. It was not the manner of the Prophet (S) and his followers to confine women to their homes, nor does this verse intend such; rather, it means that women must be p: 25 

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devoted to their homes and regard it as their true place. Moreover, they should favor household management, parenting, and caring for their husband. They must feel responsible for household issues and eschew loitering, walking aimlessly in the streets, unrestraint, and imprudence. 

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[1]: - Surah Ahzab 33: 32-33. 

Maharim 

Maharim [1] 

There are two types of men in regard to each woman: mahram and non-mahram.

 That which has been stated regarding the Hijab of women pertains to non-mahram men. Observing Hijab is not obligatory before mahram men. Mahram men consist of: 

1. One’s father’s father, grandfather, and all direct paternal ancestors 

2. One’s mother’s father, grandfather, and all direct maternal ancestors

 3. One’s brother and his children and descendants 

4. Children of one’s sisters and their descendants 

5. One’s paternal uncle, his paternal uncle, and so on 6. One’s maternal uncle, his maternal uncle, and so on 

7. One’s husband and father-in-law

 8. One’s father-in-law’s and mother-in-law’s father, grandfather, and so on

 9. One’s husband’s sons and their descendants

 10. One’s sons and all their descendants

 11. One’s daughter’s descendants

 12. One’s sons-in-law and their sons-in-law, and so on These individuals may see a woman’s body [2] and women are not obliged to cover themselves in front of them. Of course, this is only on the condition that they do not look upon her for sexual pleasure; otherwise, one cannot even look upon one’s maharim or children. Moreover, if it is for pleasure, women must not even look at other women, and men must not look at other men. 

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[1]: - Maharim is the plural form of mahram. Maharim are close relatives with whom one cannot be married. Additionally, one’s spouse is a closer form of mahram. Women are only obliged to cover their private parts before maharim and before their spouse they are not required to cover at all. [trans. ] 

[2]: - They may see her entire body save her private parts; even so, modesty is always a rule of thumb. Naturally, one’s husband may look at any part of his spouse’s body for pleasure or otherwise. [trans. ] 

The Limits of Hijab

 point 

The necessity of Hijab is one of the indisputable commandments [ahkam] of Islam and all religious jurisprudents [fuqaha]

are unanimous in this issue. Women are required to cover their bodies from non-mahram men using chadors, [1] abas, [2] long shirts, robes, overcoats, loose coveralls, montoes, veils, headscarves, or any other means that can cover the whole body. Islam does not enforce any specific form of covering. There is no disagreement regarding the necessity of observing Hijab. However, there is dispute among religious jurisprudents regarding covering the face and the hands up to the wrists. Some religious jurisprudents regard covering these obligatory or at least advise precaution [ihtiyat]. Even so, most religious jurisprudents do not consider covering these areas obligatory and cite various rationales for its superfluity: Reason One Hadith that directly and explicitly refute the necessity of covering the face and hands: 

ﻣﺴﻌﺪﺓ ﺑﻦ ﺯﻳﺎﺩ ﻗﺎﻝ ﺳﻤﻌﺖ ﺟﻌﻔﺮﺍً ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﺴﻠﺎﻡ ﻭ ﺳﺌﻞ ﻋﻤّﺎ ﺗﻈﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺯﻳﻨﺘﻬﺎ ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﺍﻟﻮﺟﻪ ﻭ ﺍﻟﮑﻔﻴﻦ».

 Mas‘adah ibn Ziyad said: “I heard from (Imam) Ja‘far (‘a) that in answer to a question about the apparent adornments of women he replied: ‘The face and two hands. ’” [3] 

ﻣﺮﻭﮎ ﺑﻦ ﻋﺒﻴﺪ، ﻋﻦ ﺑﻌﺾ ﺃﺻﺤﺎﺑﻨﺎ، ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻣﺎ ﻳﺤﻞّ ﻟﻠﺮﺟﻞ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺮﯼ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻟﻢ ﻳﮑﻦ ﻣﺤﺮﻣﺎً؟ ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﺍﻟﻮﺟﻪ ﻭ ﺍﻟﮑﻔّﺎﻥ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻘﺪﻣﺎﻥ. »

 In answer to a person who asked, “Which parts of a woman can a man who is not mahram look at? ” the noble Imam Sadiq (‘a) answered, “The face, two hands, and two feet. ” [4]

 ﻋﻠﯽّ ﺑﻦ ﺟﻌﻔﺮ، ﻋﻦ ﺃﺧﻴﻪ ﻣﻮﺳﯽ (ﻉ)، ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﺳﺄﻟﺘﻪ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺟﻞ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺼﻠﺢ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻟﻢ ﻳﮑﻦ ﻣﺤﺮﻣﺎً؟ » ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﺍﻟﻮﺟﻪ ﻭ ﺍﻟﮑﻒّ ﻭ ﻣﻮﺿﻊ ﺍﻟﺴﻮﺍﺭ. »

 Ali ibn Ja‘far said, “I asked my brother, Musa ibn Ja‘far (‘a) , ‘Which parts of a non-mahram woman can a man look at? ’ he replied, ‘The face, hands, and the area of a bracelet. ’” [1]

 ﻋﻠﯽّ ﺑﻦ ﺳﻮﻳﺪ، ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻗﻠﺖُ ﻟﺄﺑﯽ ﺍﻟﺤﺴﻦ (ﻉ): ﺇﻧّﯽ ﻣﺒﺘﻠﯽ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﻟﯽ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻤﻴﻠﺔ ﻳﻌﺠﺒﻨﯽ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ. ﻓﻘﺎﻝ ﻟﯽ: «ﻳﺎ ﻋﻠﯽّ! ﻟﺎ ﺑﺄﺱ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻋﺮﻑ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻴّﺘﮏ ﺍﻟﺼﺪﻕ: ﻭ ﺇﻳّﺎﮎ ﻭ ﺍﻟﺰﻧﺎ: ﻓﺈﻧّﻪ ﻳﻤﺤﻖ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﮐﺔ ﻭ ﻳﻬﻠﮏ ﺍﻟﺪﻳﻦ. » 

Ali ibn Sawid said, ‘I said to Musa ibn Ja‘far (‘a) , ‘I have been afflicted with looking at a beautiful woman and I like to look at her at all times, what should I do? ’ He answered, ‘O ‘Ali! It has no problem if you have good intentions, but I warn you of fornication because it repels blessings and destroys one’s religion. ’” [2]

 ﻣﻔﻀّﻞ ﺑﻦ ﻋﻤﺮ، ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻗﻠﺖُ ﻟﺄﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ): ﺟﻌﻠﺖُ ﻓﺪﺍﮎ، ﻣﺎ ﺗﻘﻮﻝ ﻓﯽ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﺗﮑﻮﻥ ﻓﯽ ﺍﻟﺴﻔﺮ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺮﺟﺎﻝ ﻟﻴﺲ ﻓﻴﻬﻢ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺫﻭ ﻣﺤﺮﻡ، ﻭ ﻟﺎ ﻣﻌﻬﻢ ﺍﻣﺮﺃﺓ، ﻓﺘﻤﻮﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ، ﻣﺎ ﻳﺼﻨﻊ ﺑﻬﺎ؟ ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻳُﻐﺴَﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻣﺎ ﺃﻭﺟﺐ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺍﻟﺘﻴﻤﻢ، ﻭ ﻟﺎ ﺗﻤﺲّ، ﻭ ﻟﺎ ﻳُﮑﺸﻒ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺷﯽﺀ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺤﺎﺳﻨﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺘﯽ ﺃﻣﺮ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﺑﺴﺘﺮﻫﺎ. » ﻗﻠﺖ: ﻓﮑﻴﻒ ﻳﺼﻨﻊ ﺑﻬﺎ؟ ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻳﻐﺴﻞ ﺑﻄﻦ ﮐﻔّﻴﻬﺎ، ﺛﻢّ ﻳﻐﺴﻞ ﻭﺟﻬﻬﺎ، ﺛﻢّ ﻳﻐﺴﻞ ﻇﻬﺮ ﮐﻔّﻴﻬﺎ. » 

Mufadhdhal stated, “I said to Imam Sadiq (‘a) , ‘May I be sacrificed for you! What must be done regarding a woman who traveled with non-mahram men and died with no accompanying women? ’ He answered, ‘They must wash [ghusl] the areas of Tayammum, but they must not touch her and p: 28 

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must not expose that which Allah has appointed to be covered. ’ Mufadhdhal said, ‘Then what should be done? ’ He replied, ‘First, one must wash the inner surface of her hands, then her face, then the outer surface of her hands. ’” [1] Reason Two Some Hadith do not plainly mention the face and hands although they indirectly denote the fact that covering the face and hands is not obligatory.

 ﺍﺣﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻧﺼﺮ، ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺿﺎ (ﻉ)، ﻗﺎﻝ: ﺳﺄﻟﺘﻪ ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺟﻞ ﻳﺤﻞّ ﻟﻪ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﻟﯽ ﺷﻌﺮ ﺃﺧﺖ ﺍﻣﺮﺃﺗﻪ؟ ﻓﻘﺎﻝ: «ﻟﺎ، ﺇﻟّﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﮑﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻘﻮﺍﻋﺪ. » ﻗﻠﺖ: ﺃﺧﺖ ﺍﻣﺮﺃﺗﻪ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻐﺮﻳﺒﺔ ﺳﻮﺍﺀ؟ ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻧﻌﻢ». ﻗﻠﺖ: ﻓﻤﺎ ﻟﯽ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ؟ ﻓﻘﺎﻝ: «ﺷﻌﺮﻫﺎ ﻭ ﺫﺭﺍﻋﻬﺎ. »

 Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Abinasr said, “I asked Imam Ridha (‘a) if a man can look at the hair of his wife’s sister. He answered, ‘No, unless his wife’s sister is old and decrepit. ’ I then said, ‘A wife’s sister and non-mahram women are the same? ’ He answered, ‘Yes. ’ I said, ‘So what parts of an old woman may I look at? ’ He answered, ‘Their hair and arms. ’” [2] The fact that the narrator of this Hadith asks about the permissibility of looking at the hair of one’s wife’s sister but does not ask about looking at her face shows that he regarded its permissibility certain, or else asking about looking at her face had precedence. Additionally, from the fact that in reply to the question regarding the extent one can look at an old woman, the Imam answered, ‘her hair and arms’ p: 29 

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and did not add her face, shows that he too regarded the permissibility of looking at a woman’s face an obvious fact that did not need explaining, otherwise, he should have mentioned it.

 ﺍﺣﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻧﺼﺮ، ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺿﺎ (ﻉ)، ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻳﺆﺧﺬ ﺍﻟﻐﻠﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﺼﻠﺎﺓ ﻭ ﻫﻮ ﺍﺑﻦ ﺳﺒﻊ ﺳﻨﻴﻦ، ﻭ ﻟﺎ ﺗﻐﻄّﯽ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﺷﻌﺮﻫﺎ ﻣﻨﻪ ﺣﺘﯽ ﻳﺤﺘﻠﻢ. » 

Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Abinasr cited from Imam Ridha, “A boy is made to pray at seven years of age but women cover their hair from him when he starts having involuntary ejaculations of semen during sleep [ihtilam]. ” [1] 

ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﺮﺣﻤﻦ ﺑﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺠّﺎﺝ، ﻗﺎﻝ: ﺳﺄﻟﺖ ﺃﺑﺎ ﺇﺑﺮﺍﻫﻴﻢ (ﻉ) ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﺭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﯽ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺪﺭﮎ ﻣﺘﯽ ﻳﻨﺒﻐﯽ ﺃﻟﺎ ﺗﻐﻄّﯽ ﺭﺃﺳﻬﺎ ﻣﻤّﻦ ﻟﻴﺲ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﺎ ﻭ ﺑﻴﻨﻪ ﻣﺤﺮﻡ؟ ﻭ ﻣﺘﯽ ﻳﺠﺐ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﻘﻨّﻊ ﺭﺃﺳﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﺼﻠﺎﺓ؟ ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻟﺎ ﺗﻐﻄّﯽ ﺭﺃﺳﻬﺎ ﺣﺘﯽ ﺗﺤﺮﻡ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺼﻠﺎﺓ. »

 Abd ur-Rahman ibn al-Hajjaj said, “Regarding a girl who is not yet mature, I asked Imam Musa ibn Ja‘far (‘a) , ‘When must she cover her head from non-mahram men and when must she veil her head for salat? ’ He answered, ‘She need not cover her head until the age that prayer becomes prohibited for her [due to menstruation]. ” [2] These two Hadith indicate that the necessity of covering one’s head and hair is an effect of physical maturity; however, nothing is said of the necessity of covering the face. If it was truly obligatory, stating this fact would have precedence. Thus, it is demonstrated that covering one’s face is not obligatory for women. 

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[1]: - A chador is a type of loose cloth that covers the whole body except the face and hands. [trans. ] 

[2]: - An aba is a type of robe traditionally worn by Arabs. [trans. ] 

[3]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 212. 

[4]: - Ibid, vol. 20, p. 201. 

[1]: - Nur uth-Thaqalayn, vol. 3, p. 590. 

[2]: - Ibid. 

[1]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 2, p. 522. 

[2]: - Ibid, vol. 20, p. 199. 

[1]: - Ibid, vol. 20, p. 229. 

[2]: - Ibid, vol. 2, p. 228. 

Reason Three As I have indicated, it can be 

discerned from the statement

 ﻟﺎ ﻳُﺒﺪِﻳﻦَ ﺯِﻳﻨَﺘَﻬُﻦﱠﱠ ﺇِﻟّﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻇَﻬَﺮَ ﻣِﻨﻬﺎ

 that covering the hands and face is not obligatory since various Hadith of the Ahl ul-Bayt state that applying Surmah and wearing rings are instances of 

ﺇِﻟّﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻇَﻬَﺮَ ﻣِﻨﻬﺎ

 and need not be covered. Hence, covering the face and hands, which are the locations of these adornments, must not be necessary. Moreover, the statement 

ﻭَﻟْﻴَﻀْﺮِﺑْﻦَ ﺑِﺨُﻤُﺮِﻫِﻦﱠﱠ ﻋَﻠﯽٰ ﺟُﻴُﻮﺑِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ, 

which is mentioned in this same verse, also indicates the inessentiality of covering the face because it advises women to cast their veil or headscarf over their necks and breasts and says nothing about covering their face, which shows that it is not necessary. Additionally, in the Hadith from Mas‘adah ibn Sadaqah, which was previously mentioned in this discussion, the face and two hands were enumerated as instances of ﺇِﻟّﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻇَﻬَﺮَ ﻣِﻨﻬﺎ. Reason Four Various Hadith and historical facts reveal that at the time of the Prophet of Allah (S) , it was not traditional for women to cover their face and they would go about in public places with their faces uncovered. Men would see their faces, they would talk to each other, socialize and barter, and women would listen to Hadith from the Prophet (S) and cite them to men. There are hundreds of female narrators of Hadith, including even the wives and daughters of the Prophet (S). ‘Ayishah, Hafsah, Umm Salamah, and Fatimah (‘a) have cited hundreds of Hadith and this necessitates men seeing women’s faces and hearing their voices. The p: 31 

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Prophet of Allah (S) neither commanded women to cover their faces, nor did he forbid men from looking at their faces and hearing their voices, unless it was with sexual and lewd intentions. Jabir ibn ‘Abdullah Ansari has said: One day the Prophet of Allah (‘a) went to see Fatimah (‘a) while I was with him. When he came to the door of her house, he knocked and declared, ‘as- Salamu ‘Alaykum. ’ From within the house, Fatimah (‘a) said, ‘Alayk as-Salam, O Prophet of Allah! ’ The Prophet (S) said, ‘May I enter your home? ’ Fatimah (‘a) replied, ‘You may. ’ The Prophet of Allah (S) said, ‘Shall I enter with my companion? ’ Fatimah (‘a) replied, ‘O Prophet of Allah! I do not have on my headscarf. ’ The Prophet (S) said, ‘Cast the extras of your cloak on your head. ’ Fatimah (‘a) did so. Then the Prophet of Allah (S) said, ‘as-Salamu ‘Alaykum. ’ Fatimah (‘a) replied. Then the Prophet (S) said, ‘Shall I enter with my male companion? ’ She answered, ‘Please enter. ’ “The Prophet of Allah (S) entered the house and I too entered. “My eyes came across the face of Fatimah (‘a) , which was yellow like turmeric. The Prophet of Allah (S) declared, ‘O daughter! Why is your face yellow so? ’ She replied, ‘O Prophet of Allah! It is from intense hunger. ’ The Prophet of Allah (S) prayed, ‘O Lord who satiates the hungry, satiate Fatimah daughter of Muhammad! ’ I swear by Allah! After the prayer of the Prophet of Allah (S) , I looked at p: 32 

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the face of Fatimah (‘a). Blood flowed into her face and it became red and after that she no longer felt hungry. [1] This narrative shows that Fatimah’s (‘a) face was uncovered in such a way that Jabir first saw its yellowness and after the prayer of the Prophet (S) , its redness. Sa‘d Iskaf cites from Imam Baqir (‘a) , “A young man of the Ansar [2] encountered a woman in the streets of Madinah. In those times, women would cast their headscarves behind their ears. The Ansari youth stared at her until he came to her and passed her, and then he looked at her from behind. Suddenly, his head hit piece of sharp bone or glass that was sticking out of the wall. His face was cut and blood flowed upon his chest and clothes. The youth said, ‘I swear to God! I shall complain about this woman before the Prophet of Allah (S). ’ The youth came into the presence of the Prophet of Allah (S). The Prophet asked, ‘Why are you thus bloody? ’ The youth recounted the tale. Just then, Gabriel came upon the Prophet (S) and revealed unto him verse 30 of Surah Nur (This verse and its subsequent verse were explicated in detail at the beginning of this chapter). This account shows that at the time of the Prophet (S) and the advent of Islam, not only did women leave their faces uncovered, they also cast their headscarves behind their ears. Consequently, their ears, earrings, necks, and breasts were apparent. The affair p: 33 

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of this Ansari youth took place in this period, which was when he took his complaint to the Prophet (S) and the verse of Hijab was revealed unto the Prophet (S). This verse advises women to cast the fringes of their headscarves around their necks so that their ears, earrings, necks, and breasts are covered. However, interestingly, no instruction was given regarding covering the face and this demonstrates its inessentiality. In order to prevent ethical and social corruption and the recurrence of incidents similar to the affair of the Ansari youth, the verse of Hijab counsels men and women to cut off their stares and shun leering and lecherousness. 

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[1]: - Tafsir-e Nur uth-Thaqalayn, vol. 3, p. 587. 

[2]: - Ansar literally means helpers. It is the denomination of the new Muslims of Madinah (then called Yathrib) who invited the Prophet (s) and his followers to live in their city away from the persecutions of the idolaters of Mecca. [trans. ] 

Philosophy of Hijab point As previously stated, one of the certain commandments of Islam is the necessity of covering. However, an important question is, ‘What is the philosophy of Hijab? Why has Islam thus taken away the freedom of women? And, is not this an injustice? ’ In reply, it must be said that the object of Islam in legislating Hijab is fortifying the holy foundations of family, preventing sexual deviations and their detrimental consequences, ensuring social health and security, facilitating the cleansing of the social environment, and decreasing moral corruption. Moreover, not only is this amount of limitation not disadvantageous to women, it is in the overall interests of women, their children, husbands, and all members of the society. In order to clarify this issue, I shall state several premises. First Point We must bear in mind that women and men are two pillars of the society, and that individual welfare, p: 34 

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tranquility, and comfort is greatly based upon the health, security, and purity of our living environment. Thus, assuring the health, security, and purification of the environment from corruption is our mutual responsibility and we must cooperate and work together to attain these goals. Second Point Women are delicate and exquisite creatures and are naturally fond of make-up, adornments, beauty, flaunting, ostentation, and charming others. They wish to take over the hearts of men with their allure; however, men crave variety and are very weak against their sexual desires. Their sexual desires are easily excited and they eventually lose control. When these unruly and rebellious desires are aroused, even reason, law, and religion are generally useless in harnessing them. Everything about women is arousing to men—especially young men: their adornments, their pretty clothes, their delicate voices, their allure and coyness, their bodies, hair, and even the warmth of their bodies can kindle this wild instinct. Third Point There are many men in the society that cannot marry due to poverty, unemployment, low income, continuing education, military service, and a large number of other reasons. The tally of these individuals, who are at the juncture of adulthood and the outburst of sexual instincts, is rather high. The regretful situation of these people who are part of the society cannot be disregarded. Considering the previous points, the following question arises: What is in the best interests of women—uninhibitedness and absolute freedom in dress and behavior or observing Hijab and enduring some restrictions? ” In order to arrive at a correct answer, it is p: 35 

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better that we consider two hypothetical communities and compare their pros and cons. Community A In this community, women have complete freedom regarding their apparel and their association with men. In order to satisfy their natural tendencies, they are flamboyant and gaudy, they leave their homes made-up, half-bare, and with beautiful, colorful, and voguish clothes. With absolute liberty, they socialize and consort with all sorts of men in public places. They ravish the hearts of every male, intentionally, and unintentionally, with their scanty clothes, their beauty, and their allure and wherever they go, they drag behind themselves a caravan of hearts. Those that are not married inhabit cinemas, cabarets, dance parties, parks, and the streets until midnight hours in complete freedom. Furthermore, those who are married go wherever they want with or without their spouses with the excuse of freedom as their right. In this community, boys and girls are free to associate with one another, become close friends, and even have sexual relationships. Men are also completely free to consort with women as they please. They can have relations with any willing woman or anyone they are able. Together they can go to theatres, nightclubs, parties, wander the streets and places of ill repute, and indulge in all sorts of debauchery. The women of such communities are free in adornment, degeneracy, exiting their homes, associating with any men, and having sexual relations; however, these freedoms come with a price and have the following consequences: Instability of the sacred foundations of family; indifference of men and women p: 36 

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toward the home and family; suspicion of spouses towards one other and trying to police one another; family conflicts; abundance of illegitimate or vagrant children with no guardians; accruement of mental illnesses; increase of murder, crime, and suicide; escalation of the number of unmarried women and men; postponement of the age of marriage; indifference of young men and women toward establishing families; inclination of youths toward various moral corruptions and sexual deviations; upsurge of divorce statistics; and superabundance of men and women who must inevitably live alone and suffer loneliness. Cases of such societies with disrupted families are evident in the West. Put aside raw emotions and thoroughly contemplate the matter. Is such a community truly in the interests of women, men, youths? 

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Community B In this society, women have an active role on the stage of life. They occupy suitable jobs with necessary facilities and in this way perform their duties to the society. Like men, women have a great presence in schools, colleges, universities, research centers, hospitals, clinics, laboratories, legislative offices, government departments, and other important and suitable offices. They completely observe Hijab and covering—except their hands and faces. They do not apply make-up and adornments before entering public places and their place of work. They leave their homes covered, plain, and without cosmetics and they make their adornments, cosmetics, and allure exclusive to their husbands and use them in the privacy of their own home. They accept these restrictions selflessly and in good will in order that the environment is free of p: 37 

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deviation and corruption. They do this with regard to the state of youths and men who do not have the power to marry. They observe Hijab so that men do not become indifferent towards their own wives due to seeing the beauties of other women, and so that these men do not turn their hearty families into a scene of a battlefield with excuses and quarrels. They accept this limitation so that young men and women—who are the children of these same women—are safe from corruption, sexual deviations, and mental illnesses; and so they may marry and establish a family at a suitable time and with the availability of necessary resources and facilities. They accept this limitation to help fortify the foundations of family—a thing of which they are also a part—and thus reduce the tally of divorce, living single, and distressed and guardianless children. In this community, most families have good interrelations, the relationships of spouses are relatively genial, and there are fewer disputes. Moral corruption and sexual deviations are comparatively low among youths. Young men and women are interested in marriage and establishing the holy institution of family. The amount of divorces and single men and women is not high. There are fewer vagrant youths and children without guardians. In this society, parents feel more assured of the purity of their children from immorality, sexual divergence, and mental disorders. Is living in such a community in the better interests of women or the first? Any thoughtful person would regard the second community superior. Islam p: 38 

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also regards living in the second community better and healthier. This is why it has legislated Hijab and has asked women to observe it and cover their adornments and beauties from non-mahram men. [1] The Prophet (S) has forbidden women to beautify themselves for males other than their husbands and has stated:

 ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨّﺒﯽ (ﻉ) ﻓﯽ ﺣﺪﻳﺚ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻫﯽ، ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻭ ﻧﻬﯽ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺘﺰﻳّﻦ ﻟﻐﻴﺮ ﺯﻭﺟﻬﺎ، ﻓﺈﻥ ﻓﻌﻠﺖ ﮐﺎﻥ ﺣﻘّﺎً ﻋﻠﯽ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺤﺮﻗﻬﺎ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﺎﺭ. » 

A woman must not adorn herself for any save her spouse, and if she were to do so, it would be a just reward for Allah to burn her in the Fires [of Hell]. [2] Imam Muhammad Baqir (‘a) has stated:

 ﺟﺎﺑﺮ ﺑﻦ ﻳﺰﻳﺪ، ﻗﺎﻝ: ﺳﻤﻌﺖ ﺃﺑﺎ ﺟﻌﻔﺮ ﻣﺤﻤّﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻋﻠﯽّ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻗﺮ (ﻉ) ﻳﻘﻮﻝ: «ﻭ ﻟﺎ ﻳﺠﻮﺯ ﻟﻬﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺘﻄﻴّﺐ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺧﺮﺟﺖ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻴﺘﻬﺎ. »

 A woman must not perfume herself when she wants to exit her house. [3] He has also stated:

 ﺟﺎﺑﺮ ﺑﻦ ﻳﺰﻳﺪ ﺍﻟﺠﻌﻔﯽ، ﻗﺎﻝ: ﺳﻤﻌﺖ ﺃﺑﺎ ﺟﻌﻔﺮ ﻣﺤﻤّﺪ ﺑﻦ ﻋﻠﯽّ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻗﺮ (ﻉ) ﻳﻘﻮﻝ: «ﻭ ﻟﺎ ﻳﺠﻮﺯ ﻟﻠﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺼﺎﻓﺢ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺫﯼ ﻣﺤﺮﻡ ﺇﻟّﺎ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺭﺍﺀ ﺛﻮﺑﻬﺎ. »

 It is not permissible for a woman to shake hands with a non-mahram save over her clothing. [4] In order to cleanse the social environment, Islam does not suffice with legislating Hijab. In addition to this, it enjoins men to shun leering and to cast their eyes away from watching non- mahram women. The Quran states: 

ﻗُﻞ ﻟﱢﱢﻠْﻤُﺆْﻣِﻨِﻴﻦَ ﻳَﻐُﻀﱡﱡﻮﺍ ﻣِﻦْ ﺃَﺑْﺼَﺎﺭِﻫِﻢْ ﻭَﻳَﺤْﻔَﻈُﻮﺍ ﻓُﺮُﻭﺟَﻬُﻢْ ﺫَﻟِﮏَ ﺃَﺯْﮐَﯽ ﻟَﻬُﻢْ ﺇِﻥﱠﱠ ﺍﻟﻠﱠﱠﻪَ ﺧَﺒِﻴﺮٌ ﺑِﻤَﺎ ﻳَﺼْﻨَﻌُﻮﻥَ “

Tell the faithful men to shorten their glances and guard their private parts; this p: 39 

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is purer for them (it helps keep their purity). Surely, Allah knows all they do. ” [1] Imam Sadiq (‘a) has stated:

 ﻋﻠﯽّ ﺑﻦ ﻋﻘﺒﺔ، ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﻴﻪ، ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: ﺳﻤﻌﺘﻪ ﻳﻘﻮﻝ: «ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﺓ ﺳﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻬﺎﻡ ﺇﺑﻠﻴﺲ ﻣﺴﻤﻮﻡّ، ﻭ ﮐﻢ ﻣﻦ ﻧﻈﺮﺓ ﺃﻭﺭﺛﺖ ﺣﺴﺮﺓ ﻃﻮﻳﻠﺔ. »

 Looking at non-mahram persons is a poisonous arrow of the arrows of Satan and many (such) gazes entail lingering regret. [2] He has also stated: 

ﻋﻘﺒﺔ، ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ)، ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﺓ ﺳﻬﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻬﺎﻡ ﺇﺑﻠﻴﺲ ﻣﺴﻤﻮﻡّ، ﻣﻦ ﺗﺮﮐﻬﺎ ﻟﻠﻪ ﻋﺰﻭﺟﻞ ﻟﺎ ﻟﻐﻴﺮﻩ ﺃﻋﻘﺒﻪ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﺃﻣﻨﺎً ﻭ ﺍﻳﻤﺎﻧﺎً ﻳﺠﺪ ﻃﻌﻤﻪ. » 

Looking at non-mahram persons is a poisonous arrow of the arrows of Satan and to whoever abandons it for Allah and none save Him, God shall bestow the pleasure of security and faith. [3] Again he has stated: ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﮑﺎﻫﻠﯽ، ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻗﺎﻝ ﺃﺑﻮﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ):

 «ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﺓ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮﺓ ﺗﺰﺭﻉ ﻓﯽ ﺍﻟﻘﻠﺐ ﺍﻟﺸﻬﻮﺓ، ﻭ ﮐﻔﯽ ﺑﻬﺎ ﻟﺼﺎﺣﺒﻬﺎ ﻓﺘﻨﺔ. » 

A look after a look nourishes lust in one’s heart and is enough to cause strife (or temptation) for its owner. [4] Noble Sadiq (‘a) has also stated: ﻗﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﻕ (ﻉ): 

«ﻣﻦ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺇﻟﯽ ﺍﻣﺮﺃﺓ ﻓﺮﻓﻊ ﺑﺼﺮﻩ ﺇﻟﯽ ﺍﻟﺴﻤﺎﺀ، ﺃﻭ ﻏﺾّ ﺑﺼﺮﻩ ﻟﻢ ﻳﺮﺗﺪّ ﺇﻟﻴﻪ ﺑﺼﺮﻩ ﺣﺘّﯽ ﻳﺰﻭّﺟﻪ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻦ. »

 He who looks at a woman and immediately looks up to the sky or casts down his eyes, Allah will wed him to a houri (in paradise) before his gaze levels again. [5] The Prophet of Allah (S) has declared:

 ﻋﻦ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻣﻦ ﺻﺎﻓﺢ ﺍﻣﺮﺃﺓ ﺣﺮﺍﻣﺎً ﺟﺎﺀ ﻳﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻣﺔ ﻣﻐﻠﻮﻟﺎً، ﺛﻢّ ﻳﺆﻣﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺇﻟﯽ ﺍﻟﻨّﺎﺭ. »

 He who shakes hands with a non-mahram woman p: 40 

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shall come chained on the Last Day and will then be cast into the Fire. [1] He stated elsewhere: 

ﻗﺎﻝ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ): «ﻣﻦ ﻓﺎﮐﻪ ﺍﻣﺮﺃﺓ ﻟﺎ ﻳﻤﻠﮑﻬﺎ، ﺣﺒﺴﻪ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﺑﮑﻞّ ﮐﻠﻤﺔ ﮐﻠّﻤﻬﺎ ﻓﯽ ﺍﻟﺪﻧﻴﺎ ﺃﻟﻒ ﻋﺎﻡ. » 

He who jests with a woman who is not his, for every word he has spoken to her in the world, Allah shall imprison him for one thousand years. [2] Amir al-Mu’minin, ‘Ali ibn Abu Talib (‘a) has stated:

 ﻋﻦ ﻋﻠﯽّ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻟﺎ ﻳﺨﻠﻮ ﺑﺎﻣﺮﺃﺓ ﺭﺟﻞٌ، ﻓﻤﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺭﺟﻞٍ ﺧﻠﺎ ﺑﺎﻣﺮﺃﺓ ﺇﻟّﺎ ﮐﺎﻥ ﺍﻟﺸﻴﻄﺎﻥ ﺛﺎﻟﺜﻬﻤﺎ. »

 A man must not go into a secluded place with a woman, because no man goes into a private place with a woman save that the third of them is Satan. [3] Musa ibn Ja‘far has cited from his forefathers from the Prophet of Allah (S) who stated:

 ﻣﻮﺳﯽ ﺑﻦ ﺟﻌﻔﺮ، ﻋﻦ ﺁﺑﺎﺋﻪ (ﻉ)، ﻋﻦ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻣﻦ ﮐﺎﻥ ﻳﺆﻣﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﻠﻪ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻴﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﺂﺧﺮ، ﻓﻠﺎ ﻳﺒﻴﺖ ﻓﯽ ﻣﻮﺿﻊ ﻳﺴﻤﻊ ﻧﻔﺲ ﺍﻣﺮﺃﺓ ﻟﻴﺴﺖ ﻟﻪ ﺑﻤﺤﺮﻡ. »

 He who has faith in Allah and the Last Day shall not sleep in a place where he hears a woman breathing who is not mahram to him. [4] 

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[1]: - Surah Nur 24: 31. 

[2]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 212. 

[3]: - Ibid, p. 220. 

[4]: - Ibid, p. 222. 

[1]: - Surah Nur 24: 30. 

[2]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 191. 

[3]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, p. 192. 

[4]: - Ibid, p. 192. 

[5]: - Ibid, p. 193. 

[1]: - Ibid, p. 198. 

[2]: - Ibid, p. 198. 

[3]: - Mustadrak al-Wasa’il, vol. 14, p. 265. 

[4]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 185. 

Marriage and its Merits 

 point 

The family is a small social unit that begins with the union of husband and wife and is fortified with the birth of children. Marriage is a natural need for humans, which is sanctioned by pronouncing the formula of the marriage contract (the marriage vows). Islam assigns great importance upon establishing the family and regards it as a holy event. Various Hadith consider family the p: 41 

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finest institution in existence. Imam Muhammad Baqir (‘a) has cited from the Prophet of Allah (S): 

ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﺟﻌﻔﺮ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ): «ﻣﺎ ﺑُﻨِﯽ ﺑﻨﺎﺀ ﻓﯽ ﺍﻟﺈﺳﻠﺎﻡ ﺃﺣﺐّ ﺇﻟﯽ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻋﺰﻭﺟﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﺰﻭﻳﺞ. » 

No institution has been established in Islam that is more loved by Allah, the Honored, the Glorified, than marriage. [1] Imam Sadiq (‘a) has cited from the Prophet of Allah (S): 

ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻗﺎﻝ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ): «ﻣﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺷﯽﺀ ﺃﺣﺐّ ﺇﻟﯽ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻴﺖ ﻳﻌﻤﺮ ﻓﯽ ﺍﻟﺈﺳﻠﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﮑﺎﺡ، ﻭ ﻣﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺷﯽﺀ ﺃﺑﻐﺾ ﺇﻟﯽ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻴﺖ ﻳﺨﺮﺏ ﻓﯽ ﺍﻟﺈﺳﻠﺎﻡ ﺑﺎﻟﻔﺮﻗﻪ، ﻳﻌﻨﯽ ﺍﻟﻄﻠﺎﻕ. »

 Nothing is more loved by Allah than a house that is populated through marriage and nothing is more hated by Allah than a house that is broken through separation (i. e. divorce). [2] Marriage is an invaluable Islamic tradition, the necessity of which the Holy Prophet (S) and Immaculate Imams (‘a) have emphasized. Amir al-Mu’minin (‘a) has declared:

 ﻗﺎﻝ ﺃﻣﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﻣﻨﻴﻦ (ﻉ): ﺗﺰﻭّﺟﻮﺍ ﻓﺈﻥّ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻣﻦ ﺃﺣﺐّ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘّﺒﻊ ﺳﻨّﺘﯽ ﻓﺈﻥّ ﻣﻦ ﺳﻨّﺘﯽ ﺍﻟﺘﺰﻭﻳﺞ. »

 Marry because the Prophet of Allah (S) has stated: Those who wish to follow my traditions must know that marriage is one of them. [3] The Prophet of Allah (S) has stated: 

ﻗﺎﻝ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ): «ﺍﻟﻨﮑﺎﺡ ﺳﻨّﺘﯽ ﻓﻤﻦ ﺭﻏﺐ ﻋﻦ ﺳﻨّﺘﯽ ﻓﻠﻴﺲ ﻣﻨّﯽ. »

 Marriage is my tradition and whoever forsakes my tradition is not of me. [4] Islam does not regard marriage (and procreation) as an animalistic deed and it does not enjoin its followers to monastic existence and abandonment of marriage. On the contrary, it regards p: 42 

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it as a way of purification [tazkiyah] and edification [tahdhib] of the soul, abstinence from sin, and proximity to Allah. Imam Sadiq (‘a) has stated:

 ﻗﺎﻝ ﺃﺑﻮﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ): «ﺭﮐﻌﺘﺎﻥ ﻳﺼﻠّﻴﻬﻤﺎ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺰﻭّﺝ ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺳﺒﻌﻴﻦ ﺭﮐﻌﺔ ﻳﺼﻠّﻴﻬﺎ ﻋﺰﺏ. »

 Two rak‘ats [1] prayer of a married person is superior to seventy rak‘ats prayer of an unmarried person. [2] The Holy Prophet (S) has stated: 

ﻗﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻨّﺒﯽ (ﺹ): «ﺭﮐﻌﺘﺎﻥ ﻳﺼﻠّﻴﻬﻤﺎ ﻣﺘﺰﻭّﺝ ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺭﺟﻞ ﻋﺰﺏ ﻳﻘﻮﻡ ﻟﻴﻠﻪ ﻭ ﻳﺼﻮﻡ ﻧﻬﺎﺭﻩ. » 

Two rak‘ats prayer of a married person is superior to the worship of an unmarried man who spends his nights in prayer and his days in fast. [3] Imam Sadiq has cited from the Prophet of Allah (S): 

ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻗﺎﻝ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ): «ﺭُﺫّﺍﻝ ﻣﻮﺗﺎﮐﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺰّﺍﺏ. »

 The worst of your dead are those who die without marrying. [4] Marriage and establishing a family is valuable according to Islam and has many merits, some of which are explained below. 

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[1]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 15. 

[2]: - Ibid, p. 16. 

[3]: - Ibid, p. 17. 

[4]: - Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 103, p. 220. 

[1]: - Rak‘at is the basic unit of Salat, the compulsory daily Islamic prayer. [trans. ] 

[2]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 18. 

[3]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, p. 19. 

[4]: - Ibid, p. 19. 

1. Instrument of Love and Friendship In this turmoil imbued life we humans require peace, tranquility, and love. We all need a sympathetic confidant, supporter, and well-wisher who we can love and enjoy his or her sincere love, aid, and support in return. We each need a person who can be our partner in life—someone who is loyal, kind, and sympathetic in health and sickness, in prosperity and hardship, in happiness and despondency, in wealth and poverty, and by and large in all circumstances. Who is better for meeting this need than a spouse and what place is better than the warm camaraderie of family. Allah, the Exalted, states in the Quran:

 ﻭَﻣِﻦْ 

ﺁﻳَﺎﺗِﻪِ ﺃَﻥْ ﺧَﻠَﻖَ ﻟَﮑُﻢ ﻣﱢﱢﻦْ ﺃَﻧﻔُﺴِﮑُﻢْ ﺃَﺯْﻭَﺍﺟًﺎ ﻟﱢﱢﺘَﺴْﮑُﻨُﻮﺍ ﺇِﻟَﻴْﻬَﺎ ﻭَﺟَﻌَﻞَ ﺑَﻴْﻨَﮑُﻢ ﻣﱠﱠﻮَﺩﱠﱠﺓً ﻭَﺭَﺣْﻤَﺔً ﺇِﻥﱠﱠ ﻓِﯽ ﺫَﻟِﮏَ ﻟَﺂﻳَﺎﺕٍ ﻟﱢﱢﻘَﻮْﻡٍ ﻳَﺘَﻔَﮑﱠﱠﺮُﻭﻥَ 

“And of His signs is that He has created for you, from yourselves, spouses that you may gain peace through them and He has set among you love and compassion. Surely in this there are signs for thoughtful people. ” [1] 

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[1]: - Surah Rum 30: 21. 

2. Instrument of Continence and Immunity from Sin Humans naturally require sexual relations and release. Controlling sexual desires is challenging if they are not satisfied legitimately and they draw a person to deviation and sin. Thus, marriage is the best and healthiest implement for satisfying natural sexual instincts and immunization against deviation. The Prophet of Allah (S) has stated: 

ﻗﺎﻝ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ): «ﻣﻦ ﺃﺣﺐّ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻠﻘﯽ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻃﺎﻫﺮﺍً ﻣﻄﻬﺮﺍً ﻓﻠﻴَﻠْﻘَﻪ ﺑﺰﻭﺟﺔٍ. »

 Whoever wishes to meet Allah pure and immaculate must marry. [2] The noble Imam Sadiq (‘a) , has cited from the Prophet of Allah (S):

 ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻗﺎﻝ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ): «ﻣﻦ ﺗﺰﻭّﺝ ﺃﺣﺮﺯ ﻧﺼﻒ ﺩﻳﻨﻪ. »

 Whoever gets married has guarded half of their religion. [3] Noble Musa ibn Ja‘far (‘a) has cited from his forefathers who cited from the Prophet of Allah (S): 

ﻣﻮﺳﯽ ﺑﻦ ﺟﻌﻔﺮ (ﻉ)، ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﯽّ (ﺹ)، ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻣﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺷﺎﺏّ ﺗﺰﻭّﺝ ﻓﯽ ﺣﺪﺍﺛﺔ ﺳﻨّﻪ ﺇﻟّﺎ ﻋﺞّ ﺷﻴﻄﺎﻧﻪ: ﻳﺎ ﻭﻳﻠﺎﻩ، ﻳﺎ ﻭﻳﻠﺎﻩ، ﻋَﺼَﻢ ﻣﻨّﯽ ﺛﻠﺜﯽ ﺩﻳﻨﻪ، ﻓﻠﻴﺘّﻖ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﺍﻟﻌﺒﺪ ﻓﯽ ﺍﻟﺜﻠﺚ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﻗﯽ. »

 When someone marries when they are young, their devil cries: ‘Woe unto me! Woe unto me! This youth has protected two thirds of their religion from me. So for the remaining third this person must fear Allah and be His devout servant. ’ [4] 

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[2]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 18. 

[3]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 17. 

[4]: - Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 103, p. 221. 

3. Instrument of Physical and Mental Health Sexual p: 44 

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desires and release are natural needs that bring about physical and mental health. Control and suppression of these needs strain the psyche and damage one’s equilibrium. The origin of many mental disorders such as depression, despair, anxiety, phobia, pessimism, nihilism, distrust, and anger may be suppression of sexual instincts. Thus, timely marriage and legitimate sexual fulfillment can be considered a key factor in physical and mental health. The Prophet of Allah (S) has stated:

 ﻗﺎﻝ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ): «ﺯﻭّﺟﻮﺍ ﺃﻳﺎﻣﺎﮐﻢ؛ ﻓﺈﻥّ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻳﺤﺴﻦ ﻟﻬﻢ ﺃﺧﻠﺎﻗﻬﻢ، ﻭ ﻳﻮﺳّﻊ ﻟﻬﻢ ﻓﯽ ﺃﺭﺯﺍﻗﻬﻢ، ﻭ ﻳﺰﻳﺪﻫﻢ ﻓﯽ ﻣﺮﻭّﺍﺗﻬﻢ. »

 Wed unto each other your unmarried men and women; for then surely Allah shall improve their behavior, expand their livelihood, and increase their humaneness. [1] 

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[1]: - Ibid, p. 222. 

4. Increase in the Well-being of the Social Environment If individuals marry at the outset of their maturity, they shall love and depend on their families and become immune to many types of moral corruption. As a result, the statistics relating to rape, taking advantage of girls and women, fornication, sexual acts with members of the same sex, masturbation, and even addiction, murder, theft, and many other crimes will plummet. Timely marriage has a great effect upon the health and security of the environment. This is why Islam advises parents and caregivers to prepare the means of marriage for those who have not yet married. The Quran states: 

ﻭَﺃَﻧﮑِﺤُﻮﺍ ﺍﻟْﺄَﻳَﺎﻣَﯽ ﻣِﻨﮑُﻢْ ﻭَﺍﻟﺼﱠﱠﺎﻟِﺤِﻴﻦَ ﻣِﻦْ ﻋِﺒَﺎﺩِﮐُﻢْ ﻭَﺇِﻣَﺎﺋِﮑُﻢْ ﺇِﻥ ﻳَﮑُﻮﻧُﻮﺍ ﻓُﻘَﺮَﺍﺀ ﻳُﻐْﻨِﻬِﻢُ ﺍﻟﻠﱠﱠﻪُ ﻣِﻦ ﻓَﻀْﻠِﻪِ ﻭَﺍﻟﻠﱠﱠﻪُ ﻭَﺍﺳِﻊٌ ﻋَﻠِﻴﻢٌ 

“And join your single men and women and your righteous bondservants in matrimony. If they are poor, Allah will enrich them p: 45 

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of His bounty. And Allah is the Facilitator, the Omniscient. 

” [1] The Prophet of Allah (S) has declared: ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﯽّ (ﺹ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻣﻦ ﺣﻖّ ﺍﻟﻮﻟﺪ ﻋﻠﯽ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻩ ﺛﻠﺎﺛﺔ: ﻳُﺤﺴﱢﱢﻦ ﺍﺳﻤﻪ، ﻭ ﻳﻌﻠّﻤﻪ ﺍﻟﮑﺘﺎﺑﺔ، ﻭ ﻳﺰﻭّﺟﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺑﻠﻎ. »

 A father has three duties toward his children: he must give them worthy names, teach them literacy, and wed them when they mature. [2] 

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[1]: - Surah Nur 24: 32. 

[2]: - Makarim al-Akhlaq, vol. 1, p. 253. 

5. Procreation Islam favors procreation and regards it as an important objective of marriage. Imam Muhammad Baqir (‘a) has cited from the Prophet of Allah (S):

 ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﺟﻌﻔﺮ (ﻉ)، ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻗﺎﻝ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ): «ﻣﺎ ﻳﻤﻨﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﻣﻦ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺘّﺨﺬ ﺃﻫﻠﺎً؛ ﻟﻌﻞّ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻳﺮﺯﻗﻪ ﻧﺴﻤﺔ ﺗﺜﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﺎﺭﺽ ﺑﻠﺎ ﺍﻟﻪ ﺍﻟّﺎ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ. »

 What is wrong with a believer taking a spouse; it may be that Allah provides them with a child that vitalizes the world with (speakers of the adage of monotheism: ) la ilaha illallah. [3] The Prophet of Allah (S) has stated:

 ﻗﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﯽّ (ﺹ): ﺗﻨﺎﮐﺤﻮﺍ ﺗﮑﺜﺮﻭﺍ؛ «ﻓﺈﻧّﯽ ﺃﺑﺎﻫﯽ ﺑﮑﻢ ﺍﻟﺄﻣﻢ ﻳﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻣﺔ ﻭ ﻟﻮ ﺑﺎﻟﺴﻘﻂ. » 

Marry so you increase because surely I shall take pride in you, among the civilizations, on the Day of Judgment, even (counting) miscarriages. [4] 

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[3]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 14. 

[4]: - Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 103, p. 220. 

6. Pleasure and Sensuality An important merit of marriage is legitimate sexual pleasure and gratification. Sexual acts bring about one of the highest of worldly pleasures and, according to Islam, are not only decent and legitimate acts if done with the intention to become closer to Allah [qasd-e qurbat] but also good deeds that have rewards [thawab]. Furthermore, sexual relations are even obligatory in some circumstances. 

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Conditions of the Marriage Contract Marriage is a sacred contract that is realized with the synthesis of several factors: 1. p: 46 

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Consent of the man and woman 2. Permission of the woman’s father or grandfather (assuming that she is previously unwed) 3. Determination of the Mahr (Mahr can be real estate, cash, credit, or any other type of property, whether abundant or meager) [1] 4. Vocalization of the marriage formulas (by the man and woman or their representative—someone who is acquainted with the Arabic language) After vocalization of the marriage formulas (marriage vows) , the individual lives of the woman and man turn into familial life, and thus the man and woman gain new responsibilities. 

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[1]: - Mahr is a specified (at time of marriage) amount that a man must pay his wife as a wedding gift. [trans. ] 

Mutual Rights and Responsibilities of Spouses 

 point

 According to Islam, the family is a small social unit that makes up the society. This small unit is formed of a woman and a man and is extended by producing children. Members of a family have a close relationship and common goals and interests. The happiness of each member depends on the happiness of the whole family. After marriage, men and women must consider all the members of the family not only their individual selves. The relationship between a husband and wife is not like that of neighbors or friends; it is much more extreme—on the verge of unity. The Quran expresses this nicely: 

ﻭَﻣِﻦْ ﺁﻳَﺎﺗِﻪِ ﺃَﻥْ ﺧَﻠَﻖَ ﻟَﮑُﻢ ﻣﱢﱢﻦْ ﺃَﻧﻔُﺴِﮑُﻢْ ﺃَﺯْﻭَﺍﺟًﺎ ﻟﱢﱢﺘَﺴْﮑُﻨُﻮﺍ ﺇِﻟَﻴْﻬَﺎ ﻭَﺟَﻌَﻞَ ﺑَﻴْﻨَﮑُﻢ ﻣﱠﱠﻮَﺩﱠﱠﺓً ﻭَﺭَﺣْﻤَﺔً ﺇِﻥﱠﱠ ﻓِﯽ ﺫَﻟِﮏَ ﻟَﺂﻳَﺎﺕٍ ﻟﱢﱢﻘَﻮْﻡٍ ﻳَﺘَﻔَﮑﱠﱠﺮُﻭﻥ

َ “And of His signs is that He has created for you, from yourselves, spouses that you may gain peace through them and He has set among you love and compassion. Surely in this there are signs for thoughtful p: 47 

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people. ” [1] The statement, ‘He has created for you, from yourselves, spouses’, indicates the intensity of the connection and relationship. In another verse regarding husbands and wives it states:

 ... ﻫُﻦﱠﱠ ﻟِﺒَﺎﺱٌ ﻟﱠﱠﮑُﻢْ ﻭَﺃَﻧﺘُﻢْ ﻟِﺒَﺎﺱٌ ﻟﱠﱠﻬُﻦﱠﱠ... 

“They (women) are a garment for you (men) and you are a garment for them. ” [2] Portrayal of wives and husbands as one another’s clothing reflects their close connection and relationship since clothes are the closest of things to one’s body and are greatly needed in order to protect one from heat and cold, to cover imperfections, and confer tranquility and beauty. Husbands and wives are also such in respect with each other and must necessarily be so. Islam greatly favors fortification of the structure of family and decent relations between spouses, and thus it has designated specific rights and responsibilities for each. These rights and responsibilities may be summarized within two main categories: common and exclusive. Both of these categories will be elucidated in the succeeding sections. 

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[1]: - Surah Rum 30: 21. 

[2]: - Surah Baqarah 2: 187. 

Common Rights and Responsibilities point The rights and responsibilities that pertain to both husband and wife are as follows: 1. Sociability Wives and husbands must behave properly with one another and observe fine etiquette. The Quran declares:

 ... ﻭَﻋَﺎﺷِﺮُﻭﻫُﻦﱠﱠ ﺑِﺎﻟْﻤَﻌْﺮُﻭﻑِ...

 “And consort with them (your wives) in honor and equity [ma‘ruf]. ” [3] The word ma‘ruf, which has been used in this sentence, is the opposite of munkar (meaning wicked) and means behavior that is approved by both reason and religion. Even though this verse is addressed to men, women also hold this obligation. Husbands and wives must be kind, well-mannered, cordial, cheerful, compassionate, helpful, sympathetic, courteous, just, truthful, supportive, p: 48 

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trustworthy, loyal, well-wishing, and polite with one other. Various Hadith also emphasize sociability and geniality between spouses. The Prophet of Islam (S) has stated:

 ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﯽّ (ﺹ)، ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﺃﮐﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﻣﻨﻴﻦ ﺇﻳﻤﺎﻧﺎً، ﺍﺣﺴﻨﻬﻢ ﺧﻠﻘﺎً، ﻭ ﺧﻴﺎﺭﮐﻢ ﺧﻴﺎﺭﮐﻢ ﻟﻨﺴﺎﺋﻪ. » 

The most complete persons in faith are those who have the best manners and the good among you are those who are good with their wives. [1] 

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[3]: - Surah Nisa’ 4: 19. 

[1]: - Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 71, p. 389. 

2. Attracting the Attentions of One’s Spouse Husbands and wives must observe each other’s desires in cleanliness, clothing, the style of their hair and beard, etc. Islam advises women at home to apply cosmetics and adorn themselves for their husbands, wear their best clothes, be neat and clean, and apply fragrant perfumes. Imam Sadiq (‘a) has declared: 

ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﺟﺎﺀﺕ ﺍﻣﺮﺃﺓ ﺇﻟﯽ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ)، ﻭ ﻗﺎﻟﺖ: ﻳﺎ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ! ﻣﺎ ﺣﻖّ ﺍﻟﺰﻭﺝ ﻋﻠﯽ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ؟ »—ﻓﯽ ﺣﺪﻳﺚ ﺇﻟﯽ ﺃﻥ—ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻭ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺘﻄﻴّﺐ ﺑﺄﻃﻴﺐ ﻃﻴﺒﻬﺎ، ﻭ ﺗﻠﺒﺲ ﺃﺣﺴﻦ ﺛﻴﺎﺑﻬﺎ، ﻭ ﺗﺘﺰﻳّﻦ ﺑﺄﺣﺴﻦ ﺯﻳﻨﺘﻬﺎ، ﻭ ﺗﻌﺮﺽ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﻏﺪﻭﺓ ﻭ ﻋﺸﻴّﺔ، ﻭ ﺃﮐﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﺫﻟﮏ ﺣﻘﻮﻗﻪ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ. »

 A woman came to the Prophet of Allah (S) and asked, ‘What are the rights of a husband regarding his wife? ’ He replied, ‘Her duty is to perfume herself with the best scenting of her perfumes, and to dress in the nicest of her attires, and adorn herself with the finest of her adornments, and thus offer herself to her husband morning and night; and more than these are his rights regarding her. [2] A man also has these responsibilities toward his wife; he must be neat and clean, perfumed and well-dressed, he p: 49 

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must style his hair and face regularly, and make himself handsome for his wife. Imam Ja‘far ibn Muhammad (‘a) has cited the Prophet of Allah (S) through his fathers: 

ﺟﻌﻔﺮ ﺑﻦ ﻣﺤﻤﺪ، ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﻴﻪ، ﻋﻦ ﺟﺪّﻩ ﻋﻠﯽ ﺑﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺴﻴﻦ، ﻋﻦ ﻋﻠﯽّ (ﻉ)، ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻗﺎﻝ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ): «ﻟﻴﺘﻬﻴّﺄ ﺃﺣﺪﮐﻢ ﻟﺰﻭﺟﺘﻪ ﮐﻤﺎ ﺗﺘﻬﻴّﺄ ﺯﻭﺟﺘﻪ ﻟﻪ»—ﻗﺎﻝ ﺟﻌﻔﺮ ﺑﻦ ﻣﺤﻤّﺪ (ﻉ): —«ﻳﻌﻨﯽ ﻳﺘﻬﻴّﺄ ﺑﺎﻟﻨﻈﺎﻓﺔ. »

 ‘Each of you must prepare yourselves for your wives; just as your wives prepare themselves for you. ’ Then Imam Ja‘far (‘a) stated, ‘This means that each of you must be neat and clean. ’ [1] The Prophet of Allah has stated: 

ﻗﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﯽّ (ﺹ): «ﺣﻖّ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﻋﻠﯽ ﺯﻭﺟﻬﺎ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴﺪّ ﺟﻮﻋﺘﻬﺎ، ﻭ ﺃﻥ ﻳﺴﺘﺮ ﻋﻮﺭﺗﻬﺎ، ﻭ ﻟﺎ ﻳﻘﺒﺢ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻭﺟﻬﺎً، ﻓﺈﺫﺍ ﻓﻌﻞ ﺫﻟﮏ ﻓﻘﺪ ﻭ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﺃﺩّﯼٰ ﺣﻘّﻬﺎ. »

 The rights of a wife regarding her husband are that he must provide her nourishment and clothing and must not appear to her with an ugly appearance. If he does these, by Allah, surely he has satisfied her rights. [2] Hasan ibn al-Jahm has said:

 ﺣﺴﻦ ﺑﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﻢ، ﻗﺎﻝ: ﺭﺃﻳﺖ ﺃﺑﺎﻟﺤﺴﻦ (ﻉ) ﺍﺧﺘﻀﺐ، ﻓﻘﻠﺖ: —ﺟﻌﻠﺖ ﻓﺪﺍﮎ—ﺃﺧﺘﻀﺒﺖ؟ ﻓﻘﺎﻝ: «ﻧﻌﻢ، ﺇﻥّ ﺍﻟﺘﻬﻴﺌﺔ ﻣﻤّﺎ ﻳﺰﻳﺪ ﻓﯽ ﻋﻔّﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺎﺀ، ﻭ ﻟﻘﺪ ﺗﺮﮎ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻌﻔّﺔ ﺑﺘﺮﮎ ﺃﺯﻭﺍﺟﻬﻦّ ﺍﻟﺘﻬﻴﺌﺔ»، —ﺛﻢّ ﻗﺎﻝ: —«ﺃﻳﺴﺮّﮎ ﺃﻥ ﺗﺮﺍﻫﺎ ﻋﻠﯽ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﺍﮎ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﮐﻨﺖ ﻋﻠﯽ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺗﻬﻴﺌﺔ؟ » ﻗﻠﺖ: ﻟﺎ. ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻓﻬﻮ ﺫﻟﮏ. »

 I saw Imam Musa ibn Ja‘far (‘a) who had dyed his hair. I said, ‘May I be sacrificed for you! You have dyed your hair!? ’ He replied, ‘Yes. Surely the preparations of a husband for his wife increases her modesty [‘iffat]. Truly p: 50 

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some women have abandoned their modesty because their spouses abandoned preparation. ’ Then he asked, ‘Do you like to see your wife the way you appear to her when you have not prepared yourself? ’ I answered, ‘No. ’ He declared, ‘She feels the same. ’ [1] 3. Pleasure and Gratification Even though seeking pleasure and sexual gratification is not the whole aim of marriage, it is one of the chief goals and initial motivators for marriage and has a considerable effect in strengthening the structure of the family and preserving a good relationship between spouses. Hence, gratification is one of the responsibilities of husbands and wives. Husbands and wives must be prepared to give each other sexual pleasure and gratification. Whenever one party is inclined to sexual acts, the other must prepare themselves and not bring excuses. The Prophet of Islam (S) would instruct women as follows: 

ﺃﺑﻮ ﺑﺼﻴﺮ ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﺟﻌﻔﺮ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻗﺎﻝ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ) ﻟﻠﻨﺴﺎﺀ: «ﻟﺎ ﺗﻄﻮﻟﻦّ ﺻﻠﺎﺗﮑﻦّ ﻟﺘﻤﻨﻌﻦّ ﺍﺯﻭﺍﺟﮑﻦّ. »

 Do not lengthen your Salat to forestall your husbands (from sexual pleasure). [2] Husbands and wives must not only think about their own pleasure in lovemaking; rather, they must also consider their partner’s pleasure and gratification. This is because regular sexual satisfaction has a significant effect on good relations between spouses and bolsters the constitution of their family. Addressing men, Amir al-Mu’minin (‘a) has declared:

 ﻋﻦ ﻋﻠﯽّ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻗﺎﻝ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ): «ﺇﺫﺍ ﺃﺗﯽ ﺃﺣﺪﮐﻢ ﺍﻣﺮﺃﺗﻪ ﻓﻠﺎ ﻳﻌﺠﻠﻬﺎ. »

 Whenever you approach your wives, do not hurry (in lovemaking). [3] According to a Hadith, Imam Ridha (‘a) has stated: 

ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺿﺎ (ﻉ) —ﻓﯽ ﺣﺪﻳﺚ 

ﺇﻟﯽ ﺃﻥ—ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻭ ﺍﺷﺘﻬﺖ ﻣﻨﮏ ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺬﯼ ﺗﺸﺘﻬﻴﻪ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ. »

 Your wives expect from you similar to that which you expect from them. [1] 4. Rearing and Edifying Children Caring for children, providing for their health, training their bodies and souls, and educating them in knowledge and morality are shared duties of fathers and mothers. This necessitates their cooperation and mutual deliberation and diligence. A father has a greater responsibility in this matter, but the role of a mother is more sensitive and constructive. 

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[2]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 158. 

[1]: - Mustadrak al-Wasa’il, vol. 14, p. 296. 

[2]: - Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 103, p. 254. 

[1]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 246. 

[2]: - Ibid, vol. 20, p. 164. 

[3]: - Mustadrak al-Wasa’il, vol. 14, p. 221. 

[1]: - Ibid. 

Exclusive Duties of Husbands and Wives a. Men’s Obligations point In addition to their common duties, due to their particular genesis, men have specific responsibilities, some of which are enumerated herein: 1. Supervision of the Family In Islam, the responsibility of guardianship, supervision, and management of the family have been set on the shoulders of men. Allah, the Exalted, has stated in the Holy Quran: 

ﺍﻟﺮﱢﱢﺟَﺎﻝُ ﻗَﻮﱠﱠﺍﻣُﻮﻥَ ﻋَﻠَﯽ ﺍﻟﻨﱢﱢﺴَﺎﺀ ﺑِﻤَﺎ ﻓَﻀﱠﱠﻞَ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪُ ﺑَﻌْﻀَﻬُﻢْ ﻋَﻠَﯽ ﺑَﻌْﺾٍ ﻭَﺑِﻤَﺎ ﺃَﻧﻔَﻘُﻮﺍْ ﻣِﻦْ ﺃَﻣْﻮَﺍﻟِﻬِﻢْ ﻓَﺎﻟﺼﱠﱠﺎﻟِﺤَﺎﺕُ ﻗَﺎﻧِﺘَﺎﺕٌ ﺣَﺎﻓِﻈَﺎﺕٌ ﻟﱢﱢﻠْﻐَﻴْﺐِ ﺑِﻤَﺎ ﺣَﻔِﻆَ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪُ...

 “Men are the protectors and supervisors of women because of the advantage Allah has given some over others and because they support them from their means. Therefore righteous women are those who are humble and who guard (in their husband’s presence and absence) his rights and secrets, which Allah has ordained to be guarded. ” [2] Family affairs must be performed by mutual agreement, consultation, and cooperation of the husband and wife; however, this small society, like any other society, cannot run well without a prudent and influential supervisor and manager. Most families that lack a manager do not have a desirable situation. Hence, either the wife must take on the p: 52 

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responsibility of supervising and safeguarding the family or the husband. Again due to the particular genesis of men and women, since most men are generally more rational, as opposed to emotional, than women; are more prepared to manage and supervise the family; and are better equipped to bear hardships, the burden of supervising the family has been set on their shoulders. Conversely, women are more emotional and passionate than men. Therefore, it is in the best interests of the family that women accept the supervision of men and perform important affairs after consulting with their husbands and, in the event of a disagreement, accept their husbands’ judgment. It must be noted that male supervision does not mean that the man can selfishly manage the family by exploiting his power and do whatever he wants and prohibit other members of the family from expressing their opinions. This is because a prudent manager and supervisor knows very well that no institution, great or small, may be administrated by force and selfishness; especially in view of the fact that the household must be a place of peace, tranquility, and nurturing for the children who are to be the future architects of the society. In point of fact, the intent of male supervision is that correct planning for administrating the family must be first and foremost and these plans must be made through consultation and an exchange of views of other members of the family; through procuring their cooperation in managing affairs; through coming to a p: 53 

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mutual understanding in decisions and resolving problems; and finally, having the last word in disagreements. The supervisory duties of men may be summarized in three categories: 1. Providing for the expenses of the family, making plans through consultation, and managing the incomes and expenditures of the family 2. Safeguarding, protecting, and looking after all members of the family 3. Overseeing religious, moral, and cultural issues of family members, guiding them towards improvement and spiritual and physical development, and preventing social and ethical corruption within the family 2. Providing Financial Support [nafaqah] In Islam, it is a man’s duty to provide for all living expenses of the family. Ishaq ibn ‘Ammar asked the noble Imam Sadiq (‘a):

 ﺳﺄﻝ ﺇﺳﺤﺎﻕ ﺑﻦ ﻋﻤّﺎﺭ ﺃﺑﺎﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻋﻦ ﺣﻖّ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﻋﻠﯽ ﺯﻭﺟﻬﺎ ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻳﺸﺒﻊ ﺑﻄﻨﻬﺎ، ﻭ ﻳﮑﺴﻮﻫﺎ، ﻭ ﺇﻥ ﺟﻬﻠﺖ ﻏﻔﺮ ﻟﻬﺎ. »

 ‘What are the rights of a wife upon her husband? ’ He replied, ‘He must fill her stomach and provide her clothing and if she makes a mistake, he must forgive her. ’ [1] 3. Honor, Gentleness, and Lenience A man must be appreciative of his wife and regard her as a blessing from God. He must honor her, be gentle with her, forgive her mistakes, and refrain from strictness and stubbornness. Islam regards this attitude a wife’s right and a husband’s duty. Imam Sajjad (‘a) has stated:

 ﻗﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﯽّ ﺑﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺴﻴﻦ (ﻉ): «ﻭ ﺃﻣّﺎ ﺣﻖ ﺍﻟﺰﻭﺟﺔ: ﻓﺄﻥ ﺗﻌﻠﻢ ﺃﻥّ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﺟﻌﻠﻬﺎ ﺳﮑﻨﺎً ﻭ ﺃُﻧﺴﺎً، ﻓﺘﻌﻠﻢ ﺃﻥّ ﺫﻟﮏ ﻧﻌﻤﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻋﻠﻴﮏ ﻓﺘﮑﺮﻣﻬﺎ ﻭ ﺗﺮﻓﻖ ﺑﻬﺎ، ﻭ ﺇﻥ ﮐﺎﻥ ﺣﻘّﮏ ﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﺍُﻭﺟﺐ، ﻓﺈﻥّ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻴﮏ ﺃﻥّ ﺗﺮﺣﻤﻬﺎ؛ ﻟﺄﻧّﻬﺎ ﺃﺳﻴﺮﺗﮏ، ﻭ ﺗﻄﻌﻤﻬﺎ ﻭ ﺗﮑﺴﻮﻫﺎ، ﻭ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺟﻬﻠﺖ ﻋﻔﻮﺕ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ. » 

The rights of a wife are that you must know that Allah has made her (an instrument of) peace and friendship; then you must know that she is a blessing from Allah upon you, so honor her and be lenient and gentle with her. Even though you also have rights upon her, you must be kind and forgiving toward her because she is captivated by you. And you must provide her food and clothing and when she makes a mistake, you must forgive her. [1] 

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[2]: - Surah Nisa’ 4: 34. 

[1]: - Makarim al-Akhlaq, vol. 1, p. 248. 

[1]: - Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 74, p. 5. 

4. Religious and Moral Guidance Men are obligated to make provision for religious, ethical, and belief related issues of their wives. Either they must help them in this matter themselves, or they must provide the instruments for their learning. A man must be careful of his wife’s morality and conduct. He must encourage her to virtuous deeds and praiseworthy behavior and dissuade her from evil deeds and indecent behavior. In short, he must free her from the fires of Hell and invite her to Heaven. This is one of the results and requirements of supervision, which is the responsibility of men. The Quran proclaims:

 ﻳَﺎ ﺃَﻳﱡﱡﻬَﺎ ﺍﻟﱠﱠﺬِﻳﻦَ ﺁﻣَﻨُﻮﺍ ﻗُﻮﺍ ﺃَﻧﻔُﺴَﮑُﻢْ ﻭَﺃَﻫْﻠِﻴﮑُﻢْ ﻧَﺎﺭًﺍ ﻭَﻗُﻮﺩُﻫَﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﱠﱠﺎﺱُ ﻭَﺍﻟْﺤِﺠَﺎﺭَﺓُ... 

“O people of faith! Save yourselves and your families from the Fire whose fuel is humans and stones. ” [2] b. Women’s Obligations Women also have heavy responsibilities towards their husbands, some of which have been indicated in various Hadith. All these responsibilities can be epitomized in one phrase: taking good care of one’s husband. Amir al-Mu’minin (‘a) has stated: 

ﻗﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﯽّ (ﻉ): «ﺟﻬﺎﺩُ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ 

ﺣُﺴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘّﺒﻌﱡﱡﻞ. »

 The jihad of a woman is taking good care of her husband. [1] The phrase

 ﺣُﺴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘّﺒﻌﱡﱡﻞ

 (taking good care of one’s husband) in this Hadith is a concise term, however, it has an extensive meaning and encompasses all virtues. Regarding a woman who takes good care of her husband, it can be said: She accepts the supervision and administration of her husband and defends and supports it. She guards her husband’s station in the family and among the children. She consults with him in important issues. She obeys his commands. If in some circumstances he deems it unwise that she leaves the house and does not permit it, she acquiesces. With good manners, virtuous behavior, and kindness she heartens her husband and turns her home into a focus of serenity and love. In times of trouble and difficulty she aids her husband and consoles and encourages him. She is trustworthy of her husband’s property and avoids waste, extravagance, and thriftlessness. She encourages him to do good deeds. At home she wears her best and most attractive clothes; she adorns herself and applies cosmetics as her husband wishes, and shows her willingness and inclination openly and at all times. She works hard to manage the household and train the children well. She to faithful in her husband’s secrets, trustworthy, loving, compassionate, etc. It can be said regarding such a woman that she takes good care of her husband and her actions are on the same tier as Holy Jihad. In Hadith several issues are p: 56 

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greatly emphasized: 1. Obeying one’s husband in religiously permissible issues 2. Submission to one’s husband in sleeping together, sexual pleasure, and lovemaking; except where religiously prohibited 3. Trustworthiness and preservation of the property of one’s husband 4. Preserving one’s modesty and chastity 5. Getting permission from one’s husband in exiting the house Imam Sadiq (‘a) has cited the Prophet of Allah (S) through his fathers: 

ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻋﻦ ﺁﺑﺎﺋﻪ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻗﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﯽّ (ﺹ): «ﻣﺎ ﺇﺳﺘﻔﺎﺩ ﺍﻣﺮﺉ ﻣﺴﻠﻢ ﻓﺎﺋﺪﺓ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻟﺈﺳﻠﺎﻡ ﺃﻓﻀﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺯﻭﺟﺔ ﻣﺴﻠﻤﺔ ﺗﺴﺮّﻩ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻧﻈﺮ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ، ﻭ ﺗﻄﻴﻌﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﺃﻣﺮﻫﺎ، ﻭ ﺗﺤﻔﻈﻪ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻏﺎﺏ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﻓﯽ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﻭ ﻣﺎﻟﻪ. » 

No Muslim man has gained more benefit after becoming Muslim than through a Muslim wife who gives him a feeling of happiness when he looks at her, and obeys him when he gives her a command, and guards herself and his property when he is absent. [1] Imam Muhammad Baqir (‘a) has stated:

 ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﺟﻌﻔﺮ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: ﺟﺎﺀﺕ ﺍﻣﺮﺃﺓ ﺇﻟﯽ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﯽّ (ﺹ) ﻓﻘﺎﻟﺖ: ﻳﺎ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ! ﻣﺎ ﺣﻖ ﺍﻟﺰﻭﺝ ﻋﻠﯽ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ؟ ﻓﻘﺎﻝ ﻟﻬﺎ: «ﺃﻥ ﺗﻄﻴﻌﻪ، ﻭ ﻟﺎ ﺗﻌﺼﻴﻪ، ﻭ ﻟﺎ ﺗﺼﺪّﻕ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻴﺘﻪ ﺇﻟّﺎ ﺑﺈﺫﻧﻪ، ﻭ ﻟﺎ ﺗﺼﻮﻡ ﺗﻄﻮّﻋﺎً ﺇﻟّﺎ ﺑﺈﺫﻧﻪ، ﻭ ﻟﺎ ﺗﻤﻨﻌﻪ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ ﻭ ﺇﻥ ﮐﺎﻧﺖ ﻋﻠﯽ ﻇﻬﺮ ﻗﺘﺐ، ﻭ ﻟﺎ ﺗﺨﺮﺝ ﻣﻦ ﺑﻴﺘﻬﺎ ﺇﻟّﺎ ﺑﺈﺫﻧﻪ. »

 A woman came to the Prophet (S) and said, ‘O Messenger of Allah! What are the rights of men upon their wives? ’ He replied, ‘She must obey him and not be disobedient. She must not give charity from his house without his permission. She must not perform voluntary fasts p: 57 

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without his permission. She must not deny him her body, even if she is on the back of a camel. And she must not exit her home without his permission. [1] 

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[2]: - Surah Tahrim 66: 6 

[1]: - Bihar al-Anwar, vol. 103, p. 252. 

[1]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 20, p. 41. 

[1]: - Ibid, p. 158. 

The Mahr of Women and its Philosophy 

 point 

When the marriage vows are recited, the husband gives his wife a gift that is called Mihr or Sadaq. The word Mihr does not appear in the Holy Quran, however, the word Sadaq has been employed. The Quran states: 

ﻭَ ﺁﺗُﻮﺍْ ﺍﻟﻨﱠﱠﺴَﺎﺀ ﺻَﺪُﻗَﺎﺗِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ ﻧِﺤْﻠَﺔً ﻓَﺈِﻥ ﻃِﺒْﻦَ ﻟَﮑُﻢْ ﻋَﻦ ﺷَﯽْﺀٍ ﻣﱢﱢﻨْﻪُ ﻧَﻔْﺴًﺎ ﻓَﮑُﻠُﻮﻩُ ﻫَﻨِﻴﺌًﺎ ﻣﱠﱠﺮِﻳﺌًﺎ 

“And give unto women their Sadaq willingly and if they freely remit any part of it to you, consume it in pleasure and delight. ” [2] No specific amount has been determined for Sadaq—it is a matter that is decided by mutual agreement between the woman and man. Imam Baqir (‘a) has stated:

 ﻗﺎﻝ ﺍﺑﻮ ﺟﻌﻔﺮ (ﻉ): «ﺍﻟﺼﺪﺍﻕ ﻣﺎ ﺗﺮﺍﺿﻴﺎ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﻣﻦ ﻗﻠﻴﻞ ﺍﻭ ﮐﺜﻴﺮ، ﻓﻬﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺼﺪﺍﻕ. »

 Sadaq is something that the betrothed agree upon, whether slight or considerable. [3] There is no minimum amount set for Mahr although various Hadith suggest that it not be excessively low. Imam Sadiq (‘a) has cited Imam ‘Ali (‘a) through his forefathers: 

ﺟﻌﻔﺮ ﺑﻦ ﻣﺤﻤّﺪ، ﻋﻦ ﺁﺑﺎﺋﻪ، ﻋﻦ ﻋﻠﯽّ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﺇﻧّﯽ ﺃﮐﺮﻩ ﺃﻥ ﻳﮑﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﻬﺮ ﺃﻗﻞّ ﻣﻦ ﻋﺸﺮﺓ ﺩﺭﺍﻫﻢ؛ ﻟﺌﻠّﺎ ﻳﺸﺒﻪ ﻣﻬﺮ ﺍﻟﺒﻐﯽ. »

 I do not like Mahr to be less than ten dirham, so it does not resemble the payment of a prostitute. [4] Additionally, no maximum amount has been specified for Sadaq. Even though a high Mahr is not forbidden, Islam does not regard setting high Mahr and p: 58 

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competing in Mahr to be prudent and has advised against it. Amir al-Mu’minin (‘a) has declared: 

ﻋﻦ ﻋﻠﯽّ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻟﺎﺗﻐﺎﻟﻮﺍ ﺑﻤﻬﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺎﺀ ﻓﺘﮑﻮﻥ ﻋﺪﺍﻭﺓ. »

 Do not set substantial Mahr for women and do not compete in its excess for this causes enmity. [1] We must not be so uncompromising in determining Mihr so as to hamper the marriage of young adults. We must refrain from excess and determine an appropriate and moderate Mahr that befits the standing of engaged couples and the social station of their families and is also compatible with the financial means of the husband-to-be. Furthermore, there is no limitation in the type of Mahr—it can be any type of property; such as gold, silver, real estate, currency, domestic appliances, carpets, dishes, cars, clothes, and any other thing that can be owned. However, it is in the good interests of the woman that, if feasible, she sets her Mahr to be real estate, gold, silver, and such. This is so its worth does not decrease over time and can be her reserve. Mahr can be either granted immediately or be given on credit. It can be the responsibility of the husband or any other person who agrees to pay it, and depends on the mutual agreement of the couple. If the Mahr was agreed to be paid on demand, the woman may request it before consummation of her marriage. If the husband has the means to pay it, he must do so. If he declines, the wife may abstain from sexual relations. This p: 59 

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refusal is not considered nushuz [1] and thus her husband cannot withhold her financial support. If the Mahr is on credit and a specific time has been agreed for reimbursement, the woman may not demand it before its time and if no date has been set, the wife may ask for it at any time. If the husband has the means to pay, he must immediately do so. The true owner of Mahr, regardless of the type of property, is the wife. No one has the right to use or take possession of her property without her consent; even her father, mother, or husband. The profits of a woman’s properties also belong to herself. The Prophet of Allah (S) has stated:

 ﻗﺎﻝ ﺭﺳﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﺹ): «ﺇﻥّ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻟﻴﻐﻔﺮ ﮐﻞّ ﺫﻧﺐ ﻳﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻣﺔ ﺇﻟّﺎ ﻣﻬﺮ ﺇﻣﺮﺃﺓ، ﻭ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻏﺘﺼﺐ ﺃﺟﻴﺮﺍً ﺃﺟﺮﻩ، ﻭ ﻣﻦ ﺑﺎﻉ ﺣﺮﺍً. » 

Surely Allah will forgive any sin on the Day of Resurrection save the sin of one who misappropriates the Mahr of a woman or the wages of a hired person, or who sells a free person (as a slave). [2] It was asked of Imam Musa ibn Ja‘far (‘a): 

ﺍﺣﻤﺪ ﺑﻦ ﺍﺑﯽ ﻧﺼﺮ ﻗﺎﻝ ﺳﺄﻝ ﺍﺑﻮﺍﻟﺤﺴﻦ ﺍﻟﺎﻭﻝ (ﻉ) ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺟﻞ ﻳﺰﻭﺝ ﺍﺑﻨﺘﻪ، ﺍﻟﻪ ﺍﻥ ﻳﺄﮐﻞ ﺻﺪﺍﻗﻬﺎ؟ ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻟﺎ، ﻟﻴﺲ ﺫﻟﮏ ﻟﻪ. » 

‘May a father consume the Mahr of his daughter? ’ He replied, ‘No, he does not have such right. ’ [3] If Mahr is on credit and the responsibility of the husband, he must pay it on demand and as soon as possible. Regarding a man who had married a woman but did not intend to pay her Mahr, Imam Sadiq (‘a) declared: 

ﻓﻀﻴﻞ ﺑﻦ ﻳﺴﺎﺭ، ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻓﯽ ﺍﻟﺮﺟﻞ ﻳﺘﺰﻭّﺝ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﻭ ﻟﺎ ﻳﺠﻌﻞ ﻓﯽ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻌﻄﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﻬﺮﻫﺎ: ﻓﻬﻮ ﺯﻧﺎ. This is [considered] fornication. [1] Imam Sadiq (‘a) has also declared: ﻋﻦ ﺃﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻣﻦ ﺃﻣﻬﺮ ﻣﻬﺮﺍً ﺛﻢّ ﻟﺎ ﻳﻨﻮﯼ ﻗﻀﺎﺀﻩ ﮐﺎﻥ ﺑﻤﻨﺰﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﺭﻕ. »

 He who designates Mihr for his wife but does not intend to honor it is equivalent to a thief. [2] The noble Imam Sadiq (‘a) thus cited the Prophet of Allah through his forefathers: 

ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﻕ، ﻋﻦ ﺁﺑﺎﺋﻪ (ﻉ) ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﯽّ (ﺹ) – ﻓﯽ ﺣﺪﻳﺚ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻫﯽ – ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﻣﻦ ﻇﻠﻢ ﺍﻣﺮﺃﺓ ﻣﻬﺮﻫﺎ ﻓﻬﻮ ﻋﻨﺪ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﺯﻧﺎ، ﻳﻘﻮﻝ ﺍﻟﻠﻪ ﻋﺰّﻭﺟﻞّ ﻳﻮﻡ ﺍﻟﻘﻴﺎﻣﺔ: ﻋﺒﺪﯼ! ﺯﻭّﺟﺘﮏ ﺃﻣﺘﯽ ﻋﻠﯽ ﻋﻬﺪﯼ ﻓﻠﻢ ﺗﻮﻑ ﺑﻌﻬﺪﯼ، ﻭ ﻇﻠﻤﺖ ﺃﻣﺘﯽ. ﻓﻴﺆﺧﺬ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺴﻨﺎﺗﻪ ﻓﻴﺪﻓﻊ ﺇﻟﻴﻬﺎ ﺑﻘﺪﺭ ﺣﻘّﻬﺎ، ﻓﺈﺫﺍ ﻟﻢ ﺗﺒﻖ ﻟﻪ ﺣﺴﻨﺔ، ﺃﻣﺮ ﺑﻪ ﺇﻟﯽ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺭ ﺑﻨﮑﺜﻪ ﻟﻠﻌﻬﺪ، ﺇﻥّ ﺍﻟﻌﻬﺪ ﮐﺎﻥ ﻣﺴﺆﻟﺎً. »

 He who wrongs his wife regarding her Mahr is considered by Allah a fornicator. On the Day of Judgment, Allah, the honored, the glorified, shall say unto him: ‘O servant! I married My servant unto you according to My covenant; however, you were not faithful to My covenant and oppressed My servant. ’ Therefore, He shall take his benefactions and good deeds [hasanat] as much as is her right and give them unto her and if he is left with no benefactions, He will order him cast into the Fire because he did not honor his pledge and surely all will be questioned regarding their pledges. [3] 

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[2]: - Surah Nisa’ 4: 4. 

[3]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 21, p. 240. 

[4]: - Ibid, p. 253. 

[1]: - Ibid, p. 266. 

[1]: - Nushuz is when a spouse does not perform his or her obligatory marital duties toward the other. These duties have been enumerated in the previous chapter. [trans. ] 

[2]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, p. 266. 

[3]: - Ibid, p. 272. 

[1]: - Ibid, p. 266. 

[2]: - Ibid, p. 266. 

[3]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, p. 276. 

The Philosophy of Mahr Some p: 61 

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may question the legislation [tashri‘] of Mihr and declare: ‘Men and women physically and instinctually need each other. Because of this they are attracted to one another and consequently get married. Taking this into consideration, what is the reason for Mahr? With the legislation of Mahr women are debased and downgraded to the level of a trade commodity. Men buy women with Mihr like one buys a slave. ’ In answer, it must be said: In Islam neither are women considered commodities or slaves, nor is Mahr deemed a trade price; rather, Mihr is a gift or endowment that a husband bestows upon his wife in order to revere her and demonstrate his devotion to her. In order to explicate the issue and further clarify the philosophy of the legislation of Mihr two points shall be enumerated. First point: Even though men and women physically need each other and naturally desire one another, each of them has special characteristics: One characteristic of women is their delicacy and beauty which is one aspect of men’s attraction to them. The most important factor of women’s influence is their beauty; something for which men have a unique regard. A woman intrinsically [fitri] understands this and thus utilizes various means of beautification and adornment in order to appear more beautiful and penetrate deeper into a man’s heart. A second quality of women is that even though they have sexual needs similar to men, they are stronger in masking their instinctive desires. They appear free from desires and usually do not p: 62 

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propose to men. A woman prefers to permeate the heart of a man and cause him to become enamored with her so that he asks for her hand in marriage. Makeup, flirtatiousness, coyness, and coquettishness of women originate from this issue. Thus, a woman deeply desires to enthrall the heart of a man and capture his love and devotion. However, men are weak against their desires and cannot conceal their inner passions. This is why they propose to women. Men desire and yearn for women and pursue them. When a man realizes that a woman desires his devotion, he reveals his adoration and welcomes her coyness and coquetry. In order to prove his love, he uses any means necessary: he spends money, buys her gifts, and holds marriage and wedding parties. The contract of Mahr is one such means. In order to prove his affection, honor his wife, and attain her heart, he bestows upon her a gift called Mahr. The Quran also expresses Mahr in this manner, as it is called ﺻَﺪُﻗﺎﺗِﻬِﻦﱠﱠ and introduces it as a Nihlah, which means gift or endowment. This is one of the advantages and philosophies for the legislation of Mahr. Second Point: The contract of Mahr gives the woman a relative amount of peacefulness and ease of mind, so that she may perform the duties that genesis has placed upon her. Even though when a man and woman are married they pledge to be faithful to one another and collaborate and cooperate in fostering and training their p: 63 

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children, contrary instances have been observed where the man does not perform his duties and refrains from providing living expenses and helping to correctly rear their children whereas nature has put specific responsibilities upon women in childrearing that cannot be avoided. This issue can be elucidated with an analogy: men are like the planter and women, the plantation. He plants his seed in the woman’s womb and subsequently he is technically free to go his own way. Canonically, legally, and morally, men are responsible toward their wives and children. However, because nature has not given the man any immediate responsibilities, he can leave his wife with the child in her womb and “fly free”. Of course, most men are not this way; but even so, it is possible and this happens on occasion. However, a woman is not free in this manner and is obliged to endure her arduous term of pregnancy, delivery, and the ensuing convalescence. After giving birth, she cannot cast aside her feeble and blameless child or leave it hungry. She is compelled to nurse and nurture her baby. Due to her intense maternal affection and the bond that is then created, she cannot leave her child after the nursing phase and has no option but to care for her child. During this time, she needs a means of livelihood—home, food, clothes, etc. What can this hapless woman do in such a situation? Naturally, women should be apprehensive about such possibilities. It might be that one reason for the p: 64 

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divine legislation of Mihr is to foster in women a reasonable amount of security and ease as regards such likelihoods. If Sadaq is real estate or hard cash women can take it and use it when in need and if it is on credit she may demand it at any time. In short, Mihr may be described as an instrument of assurance and backup for marriage. Imam Sadiq (‘a) has stated: 

ﻋﻦ ﺍﻟﺼﺎﺩﻕ (ﻉ) ﻗﺎﻝ: «ﺇﻧّﻤﺎ ﺻﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﺪﺍﻕ ﻋﻠﯽ ﺍﻟﺮﱠﱠﺟُﻞ ﺩﻭﻥَ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ-ﻭ ﺇﻥ ﮐﺎﻥ ﻓﻌﻠﻬﻤﺎ ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺍً-ﻟﺎﻥّ ﺍﻟﺮﺟﻞ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻗَﻀَﯽ ﺣﺎﺟﺘﻪ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻗﺎﻡ ﻋَﻨﻬﺎ ﻭ ﻟَﻢ ﻳَﻨﺘَﻈﺮ ﻓﺮﺍﻏﻬﺎ ﻓَﺼﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﺪﺍﻕ ﻋَﻠَﻴﻪ ﺩﻭﻧُﻬﺎ ﻟﺬﻟﮏ. »

 The reason that [the responsibility of] Sadaq has been placed upon the man not the woman—even though their actions are the same—is that when the man’s needs are satisfied he rises from her and does not await her release; for this reason Sadaq is his responsibility not hers. [1] 

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[1]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, vol. 21, p. 268. 

Nafaqah(Financial Support) and its Philosophy 

 point 

According to Islam providing for the expenses of the family, including the expenses of his spouse, is a husband’s duty. A man must finance all his partner’s expenses, even if she is wealthier than he. The necessity of nafaqah is one of the certain commandments of Islam. It is the right of a wife. If a husband does not pay it, it remains a debt upon him and must be paid on demand. If he refuses to pay nafaqah, an Islamic religious magistrate may divorce them at the wife’s request. Imam Muhammad Baqir (‘a) has declared: 

ﺃﺑﻮﺑﺼﻴﺮ، ﻗﺎﻝ: ﺳﻤﻌﺖ ﺃﺑﺎﺟﻌﻔﺮ (ﻉ) ﻳﻘﻮﻝ: «ﻣﻦ ﮐﺎﻧﺖ ﻋﻨﺪﻩﺍﻣﺮﺃﺓ ﻓﻠﻢ ﻳﮑﺴﻬﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻮﺍﺭﯼ ﻋﻮﺭﺗﻬﺎ، ﻭ ﻳﻄﻌﻤﻬﺎ ﻣﺎ ﻳﻘﻴﻢ ﺻﻠﺒﻬﺎ ﮐﺎﻥ ﺣﻘّﺎً ﻋﻠﯽ ﺍﻟﺈﻣﺎﻡ ﺃﻥ ﻳﻔﺮّﻕ ﺑﻴﻨﻬﻤﺎ. » 

[Regarding] he who has a wife but does not provide her adequate clothing and food, it is the duty of an Imam to separate them. [1] Ishaq ibn ‘Ammar has stated:

 ﺇﺳﺤﺎﻕ ﺑﻦ ﻋﻤّﺎﺭ، ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻗﻠﺖ ﻟﺄﺑﯽ ﻋﺒﺪﺍﻟﻠﻪ (ﻉ): «ﻣﺎ ﺣﻖ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺃﺓ ﻋﻠﯽ ﺯﻭﺟﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺬﯼ ﺇﺫﺍ ﻓﻌﻠﻪ ﮐﺎﻥ ﻣﺤﺴﻨﺎً؟ ﻗﺎﻝ: ﻳﺸﺒﻌﻬﺎ، ﻭ ﻳﮑﺴﻮﻫﺎ، ﻭ ﺇﻥ ﺟﻬﻠﺖ ﻏﻔﺮ ﻟﻬﺎ. » 

I asked Imam Sadiq (‘a) , ‘What rights does a wife have upon her husband, which if he fulfills he will be virtuous in this respect? ’ He replied, ‘He must provide her food and clothes and forgive her indiscretions. ’ [2] Nafaqah consists of all needs of a family, with regard to available resources and conventions [‘urf] of the time, place, and social level of the family. Some of these needs are enumerated below: 1. Food, fruit, and other such needs according to standard requirement 2. Seasonal clothing according to the needs and social level of the family 3. Carpeting and beds 4. Cooking, eating, and drinking utensils 5. Cooling and heating appliances 6. Living quarters that provides comfort for the family and is in accordance with the social standing of the family 7. Personal care and medical expenses 8. Hygienic and cosmetic products 

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[1]: - Wasa’il ush-Shi‘ah, p. 509. 

[2]: - Ibid, p. 510. 

Criticism 

point 

The issue of nafaqah has been criticized such: Legislation of this commandment has dishonored women and through it, they are considered stipendiary servants who are given food, board, and clothing for their round the clock exertions and onerous housework. Response In answer, it must be argued that this criticism is 

derived from the enmity or benightedness of the critic because, according to Islam, housework is not the duty of a wife; even regarding fostering, tending, and nursing children, no responsibility has been placed upon a wife. She can choose to do nothing and ask for a servant or she can ask for wages for performing housework and fostering and nursing her children. Even so, her nafaqah has been placed upon her husband. According to this, how can one say that women are dishonored and have been considered stipendiary servants? It is worthy of note that even though housework and house management is not the duty of women according to the law of Islam, it is considered morally crucial and essential for familial affection and intimacy. It is mentioned in Hadith as

 ﺣُﺴﻦ ﺍﻟﺘّﺒﻌﱡﱡﻞ

 (taking good care of one’s husband) which was mentioned previously, in chapter five. A mistress of the house who is interested in the endurance and warmth of the family endeavors as far as she is able to foster and edify her children and efficiently manage her home; albeit in willingness and relish not due to legal compulsion and coercion. The wives of the Prophet (S) , his daughter Zahra, and the wives of the Immaculate Imams and Saints of Islam were such. 

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Criticism 

point 

Even though men and women need each other to satisfy their ardor, have children, and raise them, why are all of the family’s expenses, even the wife’s personal expenditures a husband’s responsibility? Why should husbands work and toil while p: 67 

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wives eat and sleep and do not even do housework? Is this not unfair to husbands? Why should women be their husbands’ dependants so they are forced to obey them and tolerate their bullying and restrictions? Is it not better for both women and men to work and jointly pay for the family expenses? 

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Response

 Several points must be expounded in order to refute this criticism. 1. Nature and genesis has placed heavy burdens of responsibility upon women, who are compelled to carry them out; such as pregnancy, giving birth, nursing their babies, nurturing, fostering, and training and edifying their young. These demanding responsibilities require great time and effort to be performed well, and are not compatible with working extensively outside one’s home. 2. Women have monthly cycles and require rest during these periods. 3. Housework and child care are not women’s duties either canonically or legally; however, according to ethics and mores, they cannot eschew these desiderata because they are considered essential to familial life and greatly affect the beauty and repose of the home and hearten husbands. 4. Women are delicate, elegant, and beautiful beings and these are their most important instruments of attraction and charm for their husbands. Working in difficult and tiresome jobs outside their homes harms the elegance and loveliness of women, which in turn decreases their attractiveness for their husbands; this is neither to women’s nor men’s benefit. If both men and women work to pay for living expenses, they will have to compete with men and therefore might be p: 68 

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required to accept arduous jobs such as laboring in mines, ironworks, and automobile, petrochemical, and cement industries, civil engineering, railroads, trucking, and grueling graveyard shift jobs. If women and men were equally obligated to work and provide living expenses, naturally, such problems could arise. Accordingly, it is clear that women cannot be forced to work like men in order to pay for expenses. Thus, Islam has made men accountable for the family’s livelihood, so that women may fulfill their genetic duties at their own leisure and with ease of mind, endeavor in fostering and edifying their children, preserve their cheeriness and attraction, maintain their place in their spouse’s hearts, and make their home a place of love and tranquility. Hence, with love of wife and children, peace of mind, and gratified with their lives, men endeavor more diligently to produce the family’s livelihood and bestow it upon their partners with willingness and genuine sincerity. In consequence, pragmatically, with true regard to the interests of men, women, and their children, and to fortify the cornerstones of married life, Islam has given men the duty of providing for the family’s nafaqah and has not irrationally sided with one party and imposed on the other. It is in the interests of both women and men that nafaqah be the charge of men and women be the dependants of men. Because men are attracted to and fond of women, they desire to spend for them, and not only are they without resent, they are completely satisfied and feel good p: 69 

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about themselves when they behave in this way. The financial dependence of women is not a drawback and it does not make them stipendiary servants; rather, it strengthens the backbone of marriage. Basically, in familial life, a man’s earnings belong to the family, they are utilized for acquiring necessities; therefore, financial independence or the lack thereof is not an issue. Here, it must be pointed out that the aim of Islam in making men responsible for nafaqah is not to thwart employment of women, make them consumers and ‘stay-at-homers’, and obstruct them from having jobs and responsibilities outside their homes. Instead, Islam intends that women not be forced to work and provide living expenses; however, with regard to her abilities, preferences, and facilities, and the mutual agreement of spouses, a wife can choose an acceptable job and perform her responsibilities outside her home, and thus have an independent income. Naturally, her income belongs to herself and she need not use it for family expenditures. A virtuous woman would, however, with purity of heart, like her husband, prefer to donate it to the family so that it would have a part in managing and improving familial life and increase serenity and love within the entire family. 

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Women’s Inheritance in Islam 

 point

 In Islam, men and women have equivalent rights, including but not limited to working, acquiring wealth, possession of property, and the concept of inheritance. The Quran declares:

 ﻟﱢﱢﻠﺮﱢﱢﺟَﺎﻝِ ﻧَﺼﻴِﺐٌ ﻣﱢﱢﻤﱠﱠﺎ ﺗَﺮَﮎَ ﺍﻟْﻮَﺍﻟِﺪَﺍﻥِ ﻭَ ﺍﻟﺄَﻗْﺮَﺑُﻮﻥَ ﻭَ ﻟِﻠﻨﱢﱢﺴَﺎﺀ ﻧَﺼِﻴﺐٌ ﻣﱢﱢﻤﱠﱠﺎ ﺗَﺮَﮎَ ﺍﻟْﻮَﺍﻟِﺪَﺍﻥِ ﻭَ ﺍﻟﺄَﻗْﺮَﺑُﻮﻥَ ﻣِﻤﱠﱠﺎ ﻗَﻞﱠﱠ ﻣِﻨْﻪُ ﺃَﻭْ

ﮐَﺜُﺮَ ﻧَﺼِﻴﺒًﺎ ﻣﱠﱠﻔْﺮُﻭﺿًﺎ

 “For men there is a share from what their parents and close relatives leave, and for women there is a share from what their parents and close relatives leave, be it little or considerable; a definite share. ” [1] This verse makes it clear that, like men, women inherit and have a definite share. The verses regarding inheritance were revealed to the Prophet (S) at a time that women in the world, and especially among the benighted Arabs, were bereft of worth or status. In the Age of Ignorance, men were ashamed when they heard that their newborn child was a girl and many innocent baby girls were even buried alive. The possessions of the deceased went to their sons or eldest son only, and girls were deprived of inheritance altogether unless a father determined an amount in his will or his sons took pity upon their female siblings and gave them something. Thus, when the verse of inheritance gave women a definite share in the legacy, some people were astonished. Regarding the conditions revolving around this verse’s revelation, Imam Fakhr Razi has written: Ibn ‘Abbas gives account that Aus ibn Thabit Ansari died and left behind his wife and three daughters. Two of his male cousins by the names of Sawid and ‘Arafjah, who were his inheritors, came and took all his possessions. Aus’ wife came to the Prophet (S) and told her story and said, ‘Aus’ two inheritors left nothing for my daughters and I. ’ The Prophet (S) said, ‘Return p: 71 

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home until I see what God instructs. ’ Subsequent to this was the revelation of the aforementioned verse, which shows that both men and women inherit. [1] Indeed, by legislating women’s inheritance in such times, Islam has honored women and has considered their status as inheritors equal to that of men. However, in Islamic law, the share of women’s inheritance is half that of men’s. Allah, the Almighty, has stated in the Quran:

 ﻳُﻮﺻِﻴﮑُﻢُ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪُ ﻓِﯽ ﺃَﻭْﻟﺎَﺩِﮐُﻢْ ﻟِﻠﺬﱠﱠﮐَﺮِ ﻣِﺜْﻞُ ﺣَﻆﱢﱢ ﺍﻟﺄُﻧﺜَﻴَﻴْﻦِ ﻓَﺈِﻥ ﮐُﻦﱠﱠ ﻧِﺴَﺎﺀ ﻓَﻮْﻕَ ﺍﺛْﻨَﺘَﻴْﻦِ ﻓَﻠَﻬُﻦﱠﱠ ﺛُﻠُﺜَﺎ ﻣَﺎ ﺗَﺮَﮎَ ﻭَ ﺇِﻥ ﮐَﺎﻧَﺖْ ﻭَﺍﺣِﺪَﺓً ﻓَﻠَﻬَﺎ ﺍﻟﻨﱢﱢﺼْﻒُ ﻭَ ﻟﺄَﺑَﻮَﻳْﻪِ ﻟِﮑُﻞﱢﱢ ﻭَﺍﺣِﺪٍ ﻣﱢﱢﻨْﻬُﻤَﺎ ﺍﻟﺴﱡﱡﺪُﺱُ ﻣِﻤﱠﱠﺎ ﺗَﺮَﮎَ ﺇِﻥ ﮐَﺎﻥَ ﻟَﻪُ ﻭَﻟَﺪٌ ﻓَﺈِﻥ ﻟﱠﱠﻢْ ﻳَﮑُﻦ ﻟﱠﱠﻪُ ﻭَﻟَﺪٌ ﻭَ ﻭَﺭِﺛَﻪُ ﺃَﺑَﻮَﺍﻩُ ﻓَﻠﺄُﻣﱢﱢﻪِ ﺍﻟﺜﱡﱡﻠُﺚُ ﻓَﺈِﻥ ﮐَﺎﻥَ ﻟَﻪُ ﺇِﺧْﻮَﺓٌ ﻓَﻠﺄُﻣﱢﱢﻪِ ﺍﻟﺴﱡﱡﺪُﺱُ ﻣِﻦ ﺑَﻌْﺪِ ﻭَﺻِﻴﱠﱠﺔٍ ﻳُﻮﺻِﯽ ﺑِﻬَﺎ ﺃَﻭْ ﺩَﻳْﻦٍ ﺁﺑَﺂﺅُﮐُﻢْ ﻭَ ﺃَﺑﻨﺎﺅُﮐُﻢْ ﻟﺎَ ﺗَﺪْﺭُﻭﻥَ ﺃَﻳﱡﱡﻬُﻢْ ﺃَﻗْﺮَﺏُ ﻟَﮑُﻢْ ﻧَﻔْﻌﺎً ﻓَﺮِﻳﻀَﺔً ﻣﱢﱢﻦَ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪِ ﺇِﻥﱠﱠ ﺍﻟﻠّﻪَ ﮐَﺎﻥَ ﻋَﻠِﻴﻤﺎ ﺣَﮑِﻴﻤًﺎ “

Allah charges you in regard with your children: a son’s share is equal to the share of two daughters; if the [children] are [only] daughters and two or more, their share is two thirds of the legacy, and if there is only one daughter, her share is half [of the legacy]; and each of the parents inherit one-sixth of the legacy if the deceased had children, and if the deceased had no children and the parents are the only heirs, the mother inherits one-third; if the deceased had brothers, the mother inherits one-sixth; [all this is] after executing the will and settling the debts of the deceased. p: 72 

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You do not know which of your parents and children benefit you the most. This is Allah’s injunction; surely Allah is All-knowing, All-wise. ” [1] According to Islam, sons inherit twice that of daughters, brothers twice that of sisters, and husbands inherit twice that of wives, except regarding the father and mother of the deceased: if they are living at the time of their child’s death, each equally receives one sixth of the deceased’s legacy. 

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[1]: - Surah Nisa’ 4: 7. 

[1]: - Tafsir-e Kabir, vol. 9, p. 194. 

[1]: - Surah Nisa’ 4: 11.