SHI‘I ISLAM

DISCOVERING  

SHI‘I ISLAM 

by Mohammad Ali Shomali

In the Name of God the Beneficent the Merciful 

INTRODUCTION 

The present work is a summarized version of Shi‘i  Islam: Origins, Faith and Practices (2003, ICAS Press) by  the same author. This shorter version aims to briefly  address main issues related to Islam in general, and  Shi‘i Islam in particular. These two works represent a  modest attempt to fill some of the gaps that exist in  the field of Islamic studies in general, and Shi‘i studies  in particular. Though simply and clearly written, they  are outcomes of more than twenty years of  involvement in Islamic studies, and based to some  extent on two series of lectures about Shi‘i Islam  delivered to English-speaking audiences: a first set of  some fifty lectures delivered at Jami‘at al-Zahra (a  prominent Islamic seminary for women) in Qum, Iran  in 1995 and 1996, and a second set of some thirty  lectures delivered at the Manchester Islamic Institute  and the Shi‘a Welfare Centre in Manchester, England  in 1998 and 1999. 

The first chapter begins by expounding both the literal  and technical meanings of the term “Shi‘a”, and  references are made to statements of famous scholars  in this regard. Then it proceeds to study the origins of  Shi‘i Islam and how it became established.     The second chapter studies the sources of Shi‘i  thought, i.e. the Qur’an, the Sunnah, reason and  consensus. Discussing the status of the Qur’an, the chapter goes on to establish that the Shi‘a like other  Muslims believe that the Qur’an which is present  today is an embodiment of divine revelation to the  Prophet Muhammad. The chapter continues by  explaining the second most important source, i.e. the  Sunnah, which includes the sayings and actions of the  Prophet Muhammad. The Qur’an itself asks Muslims  to take the Prophet as their role model, to refer to him  to judge and settle their conflicts, and speaks of the  Prophet as the one who recites, teaches and explains  the Qur’an. In this chapter there is also a discussion  about the household of the Prophet (Ahlul Bayt) and  their role in presenting the Sunnah. Then there follows  a discussion about the importance of reason and its  role in understanding Islamic beliefs, values and  practical laws. Finally there is a discussion about legal  consensus and how it is viewed with respect to the  Sunnah in the Shi‘i teachings.  The third chapter studies fundamental doctrines of the  Shi‘i faith. Along with Unity of God, prophethood and  resurrection which constitute the principles of religion  for Islam and other divine religions, some important  additional doctrines such as divine justice and imamate  are studied. These doctrines may partly be shared by  other Muslims, but the Shi‘a are those who believe in  all of them. 

The fourth chapter is a very brief account of Shi‘i  practices along with brief references to the objectives  and principles underlying them. These practices are in  principle shared by all Muslims, though there may be  some differences in particulars among different  Islamic schools.  

The fifth and final chapter is a short discussion about  the Shi‘a world today. This chapter starts with a brief  account of the latest statistics about the present  Muslim and Shi‘i population of the world. There is  also a breakdown of religious affiliations of some  countries with a long history of Shi‘i presence.  Although there are no accurate and approved statistics  on the current Shi‘a population in the world, efforts  have been made here to collect the best available.   I should also note that the author is sincerely and  wholeheartedly committed to Islamic unity and hopes  that this work can serve as a modest step towards  Muslim brotherhood. In fact, one of the best means of  achieving this unity and brotherhood is to know each  other and to overcome the historical prejudices that  prevent objective understanding between each other.  According to what Imam Ali has said, “People are  enemies of what they do not know”.   A careful study of all major Islamic schools shows that  what they have in common is much more than what  they differ about. All Muslims believe in the same  God, the same Prophet and the same Qur’an. They all  believe in the Day of Resurrection and divine rewards  and punishments. They all say their daily prayers  towards the same direction, that is, Mecca. They all  fast the whole month of Ramadan. They all perform  pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at the same time. They all  believe in giving alms, enjoining good and forbidding  evil. They all believe that they should make friends  with the people of faith and good intention and keep  away from enemies of God. They all adhere to the  same virtues and values. According to the Qur’an, all 

believers are “brothers”. Regardless of their colour,  race, gender, and denomination, there are certain  duties towards each other that brothers and sisters in  faith must discharge.  

Once Mu‘alla b. Khunays asked Imam Sadiq about  what one Muslim owes another. Imam replied: “There  are seven duties incumbent upon him. Should he  neglect but one of them, he is not a friend or a servant  of God, and truly he has done nothing for the sake of  God”. Then Imam mentioned the following:  a) Wish for your brother what you wish for yourself,  and wish that what you do not desire for yourself  should not befall your brother.  b) Do not make your brother angry, but seek to please  him and obey his wishes. 

c) Help him with your soul, your property, your  tongue, your hands and your feet.  d) Be the eye that he sees with, his guide and his  mirror. 

e) Do not eat your fill when he is hungry, nor drink  and clothe yourself when he is thirsty and naked.  f) If he has no servant, but you do, it is incumbent on  you to send your servant to him to wash his clothes,  cook his food and spread out his mattress.  g) Accept his promise and his invitation; visit him  when he is sick, attend his funeral, and see to his needs  before he asks you, hurrying to do them if you can.  (Muzaffar, pp. 76 & 77). 

 Unfortunately, there have always been some shortsighted people among each group or sect who have  tried to magnify the differences and have called for  separation instead of unity and brotherhood. They  hasten to find some excuses to call anyone who  disagrees with them a kāfir (disbeliever) or a mushrik 

(polytheist) and any act that does not please them 

bid‘ah (heresy). Of course, there are disbelievers and  there are heretics, but one must be very cautious in  applying these terms. Great Islamic leaders and  scholars, whether they be Sunni or Shi‘a, have never  attached these labels to each other. In this way, they  have represented in their fatwas, sayings and deeds the  real spirit of Islam, this harmonious and universal  message of peace, justice, unity and mercifulness.   Islam brought unity and solidarity for those who  suffered a great deal from enmity and hostility (3:103).  This act of unifying people is highly esteemed as a  divine act (8:63). On the contrary, the action of people  such as Pharaoh was to disunite people (28:4). The  Qur’an warns believers that if they start disputing with  each other they will weaken and they will, therefore, be  defeated (8:46). In fact, the call for unity is not limited  to Muslims. The Qur’an invites all people of faith such  as Christians and Jews to unify their efforts and  concentrate on their common ground (3:64). Let us  hope and pray that day by day this sense of unity and  solidarity intensifies. 

In conclusion I would like to take this opportunity to  thank all the individuals and organisations that have  encouraged me, especially Ayatollah Muhsin Araki,  Islamic College for Advanced Studies, and the Ahlul 

Bayt Assembly of UK and the Republic of Ireland in  London. Last but certainly not least, I would like to  express my feelings of deep gratitude to God for all  His favours that He has bestowed upon us in the past  and in the present. 

Mohammad A. Shomali 

Ramadan 1423, November 2002 

Chapter 1 

ORIGINS OF SHI‘I ISLAM 

The meaning of the term Shi‘a 

In Arabic, the term “Shi‘a” originally means one, two  or a group of followers. In the Glorious Qur’an, this  term is used several times in this sense. For example,  God speaks of one of the followers of Moses as one  of his Shi‘a in the verse (28:15). Elsewhere, Abraham  is introduced as a Shi‘a of Noah (37:83). In the  beginning of the history of Islam, the term “Shi‘a” was  used in its original or literal sense for followers of  different people. For example, some hadiths speak of  the Shi‘a of Ali b. Abi Talib and others of the Shi‘a of  Mu‘awiyah b. Abi Sufyan. However, gradually the term  acquired a secondary or technical meaning, i.e. the  followers of Ali, those who believed in his Imamate 

(divinely appointed leadership).   Shahrestani (d. 548 A.H) in his Al-Milal wa al-Nihal, an  outstanding source about different sects in Islam, 

writes, “The Shi‘a are those who followed Ali in  particular and believed in his Imamate and caliphate  according to the explicit teachings and will of the  Prophet Muhammad.” 1 This is a very accurate 

                                                 

1 Shahrestani, Vol. 1, p. 146. 

definition, since the Shi‘a themselves believe that the  reason for following Ali is that it was required by the  Prophet and it was not their personal decision to  choose whom to follow, unlike the non-Shi‘a who,  after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, followed  Abu Bakr b. Abi Quhafah who was chosen at Saqīfah 

and believed that the Prophet had left it to the people  themselves to decide whom to follow. Of course, Abu  Bakr himself believed that he must appoint his  successor. And the second Caliph, ‘Umar b. Khattab,  in turn appointed a council of six people to choose  one amongst themselves according to a very strict  procedure set up by him. It is interesting to note that it  was Ali, the fourth Caliph, who was chosen and  indeed forced by nearly all Muslims after the murder  of the third Caliph, ‘Uthman b. ‘Affan to undertake  the position of caliphate.  

In his Firaq al-Shi‘a, al-Hasan b. Musa Nawbakhti (d.  313 A.H), a well-known Shi‘a scholar, writes, “the  Shi‘a are the party of Ali b. Abi Talib. They were called  ‘Shi‘a’ of Ali during and after the life of the Prophet  and are known as the followers of Ali and believers in  his Imamate”.1 Shaykh al-Mufid (d. 413 A.H), one of  the most outstanding early Shi‘a scholars, defines the  Shi‘a as being those who follow Ali and believe in his  immediate successorship to the Prophet.2 Explaining  why the Shi‘a are also called “Imāmīyah”, he says: “This  is a title for those who believe in the necessity of  Imamate and its continuity in all ages, and that every 

                                                 

1 Nawbakhti, p. 17. 

2 See al-Mufid, p. 36. 

 

Imam must be explicitly designated, and must also be  infallible and perfect.”1  

Thus, it can be said that Shi‘a Muslims are those who  have the following beliefs about the successorship to  the Prophet Muhammad: 

a. Successorship to the Prophet is a divinely  appointed position.  

b. As the Prophet was chosen by God, his  successor or Imam must also be chosen by 

God and then made known by the Prophet. 

c. The immediate successor to the Prophet  Muhammad was Ali.  

When did Shi‘i Islam start? 

Naturally the question arises as to when Shi‘ism  started. There are many hadiths narrated by both Shi‘a  and non- Shi‘a scholars regarding the issue of Imamate  that will be studied later when discussing Shi‘i  doctrines. In what follows, however, we will study  only some hadiths in which the Prophet Muhammad  spoke of a group of people as “Shi‘a” (followers) of  Ali, and we will then refer to some other reasons from  hadiths and the history of Islam. All hadiths  mentioned below are cited from respected Sunni  sources. These are only a few of the most important  narrations, and there are many more to be found in  the sources mentioned here as well as others. 

                                                 

1 Ibid, p. 38. 

(1) Ibn ‘Asakir (d. 571 A.H) narrated from Jabir b.  ‘Abdullah al-Ansari that he said:   Once we were with the Prophet 

Muhammad, when Ali arrived, upon 

which the Prophet said, “I swear by Him 

who has my life in His hand that surely 

this man and his Shi‘a will be happy on 

the Day of Resurrection”. Then the verse 

“Surely those who believe and do good deeds are 

the best of creation” (98:7) was revealed. 

Later, whenever the companions of the 

Prophet Muhammad saw Ali coming, they 

would say, ‘The best of creation has 

come’. (Ibn ‘Asakir, Vol. 2, p. 442 & alSuyuti, Vol. 6, p. 589) 

(2) Ibn Hajar (d. 974) narrated from Ibn Abbas that  when the verse (98:7) was revealed the Prophet told  Ali: 

Those are you and your Shi‘a. On the Day 

of Resurrection you will be pleased and 

well pleasing (to God), and your enemies 

will come angry and will be seized by their 

necks. (Ibn Hajar, Section 11, Chapter 1, 

the Verse 11)1  

                                                 

1 In the same book, Ibn Hajar has also narrated from Umm  Salamah that one night when the Prophet was in her house, his  daughter Fatimah arrived, with Ali following her. Then the  Prophet said: “O Ali! You and your companions are in Heaven.  You and your Shi‘a are in Heaven”. 

(3) Ibn al-Athir (d. 606) narrated that, addressing  Ali, the Prophet said:  

O Ali! You and your Shi‘a will reach God 

being pleased with Him and well pleasing 

Him, and your enemies will reach Him, 

being angry and will be seized by their 

necks. Then the Prophet demonstrated 

how this would be by putting his hand on 

his neck. (Ibn al-Athir, the entry “qa-maha”)  

There are other hadiths in which the Prophet  Muhammad, addressing Ali, used the expression “our  Shi‘a”. This is in line with what was asserted above  that the Shi‘a are those who follow Ali, in accordance  with the teachings of the Prophet and not because of  their own personal decision. For example, Ibn ‘Asakir  narrated that the Prophet said:   Surely there is a spring in Paradise sweeter 

than nectar, smoother than butter, cooler 

than ice, and more fragrant than musk. In 

that spring is the clay (ñínah) from which 

we (my household and me) were created 

and our Shi‘a are made from the same 

clay. (Ibn ‘Asakir, Vol. 1, p. 129, No. 180)  

There are yet other hadiths in which the Prophet,  addressing Ali, used the expression “Shi‘a of your  descendants”. This confirms what was suggested  above, that the Shi‘a are those who follow Ali because  they believe in the institution of Imamate. As we will  see in detail, the Shi‘a believe that Ali was the first  Imam and after him the institution of Imamate continued in those offspring of Ali and Fatimah who  were chosen by God and introduced by the Prophet.  For example, Zamakhshari (d. 528 A.H) in his Rabi‘ alAbrar reports that the Prophet said: “O Ali! When the  Day of Resurrection comes I will hold on to God, you  will hold on to me, your descendants will hold on to  you and their Shi‘a will hold on to them. Then you  will see where we will be taken.”1    It has to be noted that according to the Qur'an,  prophethood was also inherited. The Qur'an says:  “And surely we have sent Noah and Abraham, and we  placed prophethood and the Book in their offspring”.  (57:26) This means that those who were qualified to  be chosen as prophets by God were included in their  offspring.  

In addition to the above-mentioned hadiths and their  like, and the hadiths on Imamate, there are many other  reasons that make the appearance of a group of people  such as the Shi‘a in the lifetime of the Prophet a very  natural and even necessary phenomenon. For  example, at the beginning of Islam when the Prophet  was asked by God to start his public invitation to  Islam by inviting his close relatives, he called his  relatives to a meal. After the meal the Prophet  introduced his mission and invited the guests to Islam  and stated that whoever believed in Islam among them  and assisted him would be his successor. All kept  silent. The only one who accepted the invitation to  assist him was Ali, a teenager at that time. The 

                                                 

1 Cited in Subhani, Vol, 6, p. 104. 

Prophet asked him to sit and repeated his invitation  for the second and the third time. Again and again it  was just Ali who expressed his readiness to support  the Prophet. The Prophet accepted Ali's submission to  the will of God and carried out Allah's command to  designate him as his successor. This event is  documented in many sources.1   In a very important statement, the Prophet clearly  affirmed that Ali was truthful and free of false beliefs  and wrong acts, be it in his personal conduct or in his  speech and judgements, and implicitly asked Muslims  to follow him. Umm Salamah reported that the  Prophet said: “Ali is always with the truth (al-haqq) and  the truth is always with him, and until the Day of  Resurrection they will not separate from each other”.  This particular hadith is narrated by Ibn ‘Abbas, Abu  Bakr, ‘A’ishah, Abu Sa‘id al-Khuddari, Abu Layla, and  Abu Ayyub al-Ansari.2 The Prophet is also quoted as  saying, “May God bless Ali. My Lord, make the truth  always be with him”.3  

The Prophet also asserted on several occasions that  Ali was the most knowledgeable among the people in 

                                                 

1 Among non-Shi‘a sources, one can refer to Tarikh al-Umam wa  al-Muluk by Tabari (d. 310 A.H), Vol. 3, pp. 62, 63; Al-Kamil fi alTarikh by Ibn al-Athir (d. 630 A.H), Vol. 2, pp. 40, 41& Musnad 

of Ahmad b. Hanbal, Musnad al-‘Asharah al-Mubashsharin bi alJannah, Sakhr serial no. 841. 

2 According to Ghafari, p. 10, this tradition has been transmitted  through 15 non-Shi‘a channels, such as Mustadark by al-Hakim alNishaburi, al-Sawa‘iq by ibn Hajar, Kanz al-‘Ummal and Yanabi‘ alMawaddah.        

3 See, e.g. al-Tirmidhi, Kitab al-Manaqib, Sakhr serial no. 3647. 

matters pertaining to Islamic sciences. For example,  the Prophet said: “Wisdom has been divided into ten  parts: nine parts have been given to Ali and one part  has been distributed among the rest of the people”.1  Later the second Caliph reaffirmed the saying of the  Prophet when he said, “May God never afflict me  with a difficult task when Ali is not present”.2   One also has to take into account the valuable and  vital services and sacrifices of Ali in order to be able to  realise his position among Muslims. For example,  when the infidels of Mecca planned to kill the  Prophet, and God informed him of their plot, the  Prophet asked Ali whether he would be willing to  sleep in his place so that the pagans would think that  he was still at home, allowing him to safely leave  Mecca. Ali accepted this task, on the occasion of  which the verse was revealed, “And among people are  those who sell their souls to acquire divine pleasure”  (2:207). The emigration of the Prophet from Mecca to  Medina marks the beginning of the Islamic Calendar.  Ali served the cause of Islam by fighting in the Battles  of Badr, Uhud, Khaybar, Khandaq and Hunayn, in all  of which he played crucial roles. These are all  registered in numerous historical works and  collections of hadiths by non-Shi‘a scholars.  

                                                 

1 Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah by Ibn Kathir (d. 774 A.H), Vol. 7, p.  359. 

2 See for example Al-Isabah fi Tamyiz al-Sahabah by Ibn Hajar, Vol.  2, p. 509 and Al-Bidayah wa al-Nihayah by Ibn Kathir, Vol. 7, p.  36. 

The Prophetic hadiths on the issue of the Imamate in  general, and about Ali in particular, need to be studied  separately. However, I would like to conclude the  discussion here by referring to the well-known hadith  of Ghadir Khumm. Returning from his last pilgrimage to  Mecca, the Prophet asked thousands of Muslims  accompanying him to stop on the way. He stood on a  platform or pulpit made for him out of saddles and  said, “Whoever has adopted me as his master (mawlā),  Ali now is his master”. Then, those present, including  the first and second Caliphs to be, paid allegiance to  Ali and congratulated him. This hadith is transmitted  by more than one hundred sources. For a  comprehensive list of non-Shi‘a sources of this hadith,  see ‘Abaqat al-Anwar by Mir Hamid Husayn al-Hindi  (d. 1306 A.H) and Al-Ghadir by ‘Abd al-Husayn alAmini (d. 1390 A.H).  

Having affirmed the veracity of the hadith, some  Sunni writers have interpreted the term mawlā used in  this hadith in another way. According to them, the  term mawlā here is used in the sense of friendship.  Whether this can be accepted or not, there is no doubt  that this tradition and the event gave Ali a unique and  central position among the companions of the  Prophet. 

Thus, it seems that the different sets of hadiths along  with the historical evidence mentioned above leave no  doubt that during the lifetime of the Prophet many  Muslims came to love Ali deeply and sought his  company, and were determined to follow him after the  Prophet. These people were so frequently and  significantly referred to as the Shi‘a of Ali that gradually the term “Shi‘a” became synonymous with  the Shi‘a of Ali. More important than this is the fact  that the idea of the Imamate of Ali certainly started in  the lifetime of the Prophet Muhammad.   The demise of the Prophet naturally brought the issue  into focus and distinguished those who still believed in  the necessity of following Ali from other Muslims,  who sooner or later came to believe in the institution  of the caliphate as the successorship to the Prophet in  ruling the Islamic society, and not as a divinely  appointed position. Describing events after the death  of the prophet, Al-Mas‘udi (d. 345 A.H), a great Sunni  historian, writes: “Indeed Imam Ali and those of his 

Shi‘a who were with him stayed in his house at the  time that the allegiance to Abu Bakr was made.”1   Later, certain events, such as the wars that occurred  during the Caliphate of Ali and the event of Karbalā in  which Husayn, the third Imam of the Shi‘a and  seventy two people of his family and companions were  killed, defined Shi‘a identity more sharply. For  example, we find in one of the early works that Ali,  condemning Talhah and Zubayr, said: “Surely the  followers of Talhah and Zubayr in Basra killed my 

Shi‘a and my agents”. 2 Abū Mikhnaf (d. 158 A.H)  reports that after the death of Mu‘awiyah the Shi‘a  gathered at the house of Sulayman b. Surad and he  told them: “Mu‘awiyah has died and Husayn has  refused to pay allegiance to the Umayyads and has 

                                                 

1 Ithbat al-Wasiyah, p. 121. 

2 Waq‘at Seffin by Nasr b. Muzahim (d. 212 A.H). 

departed towards Mecca and you are his Shi‘a and the 

Shi‘a of his father”.1  

Early Shi‘a 

Naturally, Shi‘i Islam first started in the Hijaz  (presently known as Saudi Arabia) amongst the  companions of the Prophet. Reference to the Islamic  historical and biographical works shows that the list of  the Shi‘a pioneers among the companions of the  Prophet includes the following well-known bani  Hashim (offspring of Hashim, great-grandfather of the  Prophet Muhammad): ‘Abdullah b. al-‘Abbas, al-Fadl  b. al-‘Abbas, ‘Ubaydillah b. al-‘Abbas, Qiththam b. al‘Abbas, ‘Abd al-Rahman b. al-‘Abbas, Tamam b. al‘Abbas, Aqil b. Abi Talib, Abu Sufyan b. al-Harth b.  ‘Abd al-Mutallib, Naufil b. al-Harth, ‘Abdullah b. Ja‘far  b. Abi Talib, ‘Awn b. Ja‘far, Muhammad b. Ja‘far,  Rabi‘at b. al-Harth b. ‘Abd al-Mutallib, al-Tufayl b. alHarth, al-Mughayrat b. Nawfil b. al-Harith, ‘Abdullah  b. al-Harth b. Nawfil, ‘Abdullah b. Abi Sufyan b. alHarth, al-‘Abbas b. Rabi‘at b. al-Harth, al-‘Abbas b.  ‘Utbah b. Abi Lahab, ‘Abd al-Mutallib b. Rabi‘at b. alHarth, Ja‘far b. Abi Sufyan b. al-Harth.   The list of Shi‘a among those companions of the  Prophet who were not bani Hashim includes: Salman,  Miqdad, Abu Dharr, ‘Ammar b. Yasir, Hudhayfah b.  al-Yaman, Khuzaymah b. Thabit, Abu Ayyub alAnsari, Abu al-Haytham Malik b. al-Tihan, Ubayy b.  Ka‘b, Qays b. Sa‘d b. ‘Ubadah, ‘Adiy b. Hatam,  ‘Ubadah b. al-Samit, Bilal al-Habashi, Abu Rafi‘, 

                                                 

1 Maqtal al-Imam al-Husayn by Abu Mikhnaf, p. 15. 

Hashim b. ‘Utbah, ‘Uthman b. Hunayf, Sahl b.  Hunayf, Hakim b. Jibillah al-‘Abdi, Khalid b. Sa‘id b.  al-‘Aas, Ibn Husayb al-Aslami, Hind b. Abi Halah alTamimi, Ju‘dah b. Hubayrah, Hujr b. ‘Adiy al-Kindi,  ‘Amr b. al-Hamq al-Khuza‘i, Jabir b. ‘Abdullah alAnsari, Muhammad b. Abi Bakr (the son of the first  Caliph), Aban b. Sa‘id b. al-‘Asi, and Zayd b. Sauhan.1 

                                                 

1 For example, see Buhuth fi al-Milal wa al-Nihal by J. Subhani, Vol.  6, pp. 109 & 110. Sayyid Ali al-Madani (d. 1120 A.H) in his AlDarjat al-Rafi‘at fi Tabaqat al-Shi‘a al-Imamiyah mentions names of  69 Companions of the Prophet who were Shi‘a. Sayyid ‘Abd alHusayn Sharaf al-Din (1377 A.H) in his Al-Fusul al-Muhimmah fi  Ta’lif al-Ummah mentions names of more than two hundred  Companions of the Prophet Muhammad who were Shi‘a. They  are listed in an A-Z order starting with Abu Rafi‘ and ending with  Yazid b. Hautharah al-Ansari. Yousuf b. ‘Abdullah (d. 456 A.H)  in his Al-Isti‘ab, Ibn al-Athir in his Usd al-Ghabah and Ibn Hajar  (d. 852 A.H) in his Al-Isabah are some of the non-Shi‘a scholars  who have mentioned some of the Shi‘a pioneers. 

Chapter 2 

SOURCES OF SHI‘I THOUGHT 

Before studying Shi‘a doctrines or practices, it is  necessary to know the sources on which the Shi‘a rely  for understanding Islam. In what follows, we will  study the four sources of Shi‘i thought, or in other  words the four sources on which, from a Shi‘i point of  view, any investigation about Islam has to be based:  the Glorious Qur’an, the Sunnah, reason and  consensus. 

The Glorious Qur’an 

Needless to say, the Qur’an is the most important  source for all Muslims, including the Shi‘a. The Qur’an  also acts as an instrument of unity among all Muslims.  Regardless of their different sectarian and cultural  backgrounds, all Muslims refer to the same Book as  the divine guide to govern their life. Today, as in any  other time, there exists only one Qur’an, without any  addition or alteration, throughout the Muslim world.  A typical Shi‘a standpoint towards the Qur’an can be  found in the following passage:  We believe that the Qur’an was divinely 

inspired, and revealed by Allah on the 

tongue of His honourable Prophet, 

making clear everything, an everlasting 

miracle. Man is unable to write anything like it because of its eloquence, clarity, 

truth and knowledge, and no alteration 

can be made to it. The Qur’an we have 

now is exactly what was sent to the 

Prophet, and anyone who claims 

otherwise is either an evil-doer, a mere 

sophist or else a person in error, and all of 

them have gone astray, because it is the 

speech of Allah, and: “Falsehood cannot 

come at it from before it or from behind.” 

(41:42) 

…We also believe that we must respect 

and give dignity to the Glorious Qur’an, 

and this both in word and in deed. 

Therefore, it must not be defiled 

intentionally, not even one of its letters, 

and it must not be touched by one who is 

not tahir [i.e. ‘pure’]. It is said in the 

Qur’an: “None can touch it save the 

purified.” (56:79)1  

Shi‘a deny any alteration in the Qur’an  

As mentioned above, the Shi‘a deny any alteration in  the Qur’an and believe that the Qur’an available today  is the same that was revealed to the Prophet  Muhammad. The Qur’an is complete. No one has ever  seen a copy of the Qur’an different from the standard  one in any part of the Islamic world. There are  manuscripts of the Qur’an available today that go back 

                                                 

1 Muzaffar, The Faith of Shi‘a Islam, p. 26. 

to the time of Shi‘a Imams and they are exactly the  same as the current ones.  

The Glorious Qur’an itself explicitly says that God  Himself preserves the Qur’an from any alteration and  distortion: 

Surely We have revealed the Reminder and We 

will most surely be its preserver. (15:9)1 

Regarding this verse, ‘Allamah Tabataba’i in his  renowned Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an, one of the  greatest commentaries of the Qur’an, states:  …the Qur’an is a living and eternal 

Reminder which will never die and fall 

into oblivion. It is immune from any 

addition and loss. It is immune from and 

secure against any alterations in form and 

style which could affect its character and 

role, that is, as, “the Reminder of Allah 

which expresses divine truth and 

knowledge”. For this reason, the aforesaid 

verse indicates that the divine Book has 

always been and will continue to be 

guarded against any distortion and 

alteration.2  

 

                                                 

1 It should be noted that the charge with belief in alteration is  limited to deletion of some alleged verses; otherwise neither the  Shi‘a nor the Sunni Muslims have ever been charged with belief  in addition to the Qur’an. Therefore, one can argue from the  Qur’anic verses for refutation of the idea of alteration.  

2 Al-Mizan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an, Vol. 12, p. 99. 

The Sunnah 

After the Glorious Qur’an, the most important source  for understanding Islam and therefore Shi‘i thought is  the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad, including his  sayings and his deeds. The Qur’an itself grants this  high position to the Prophet, as he is referred to as the  one who is responsible for explaining the Qur’an  (16:44) and teaching the Qur’an and wisdom (62:2).  The Prophet is a perfect example for the believers  (33:21). He never speaks out of his own wishes (53:3).  Muslims are asked to hold on to whatever he gives  them and refrain from whatever he prohibits (59:7).  Knowing the above verses and many other verses  regarding the status of the Prophet, and taking into  account the significance of being a divine messenger  chosen directly by God and spoken to by Him, the  Shi‘a, along with other Muslims, cultivated a state of  sincere love for and devotion to the Prophet  Muhammad. 

The household of the Prophet 

There seems to be no disagreement among Muslims  about the validity of following the teachings of the  household of the Prophet in understanding Islam,  especially according to the Sunni view which considers  even all the companions of the Prophet as reliable  sources of understanding Islam.1 There is no doubt, 

                                                 

1 Sunni Muslims hold that whoever met the Prophet while  believing in him is considered as a companion of the Prophet and  can be relied on in acquiring knowledge about Islam.  Accordingly, members of the household of the Prophet such as Imam Ali and Fatimah who have always been with the Prophet  and had the closest relation to the Prophet can unquestionably be  relied on. 

then, that the household of the Prophet are reliable  and trustworthy in their understanding and  presentation of Islam.  

This fact becomes even clearer when we refer to the  traditions from the Prophet about his household, and  examine sayings of Sunni scholars about the  knowledge of Ali and other members of the  household of the Prophet. For example, Imam Malik  says: “No eyes have seen, no ears have heard, and  nothing has come to the heart of any human being  better than Ja‘far b. Muhammad, who is distinguished  in his knowledge, his piety, his asceticism, and in his  servitude to God.” This is what Ibn Taymiyah reports  from Imam Malik in his book. 1 In a survey about  those who narrated from Imam Sadiq, Shaykh alMufid (d.413) in his al-Irshad asserts that those who  were trustworthy among them from different schools  of thought were 4000 in number.   Thus, there is no ambiguity here and this is why many  Sunni scholars such as the late Shaykh Shaltut have  clearly pointed out that every Muslim is allowed to act  according to one of the five Islamic schools of fiqh:  Ja‘fari, Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi‘i.   The reason is clear, because if Imam Ja‘far Sadiq, for  example, did not possess more knowledge or better  access to the knowledge of the Prophet than the rest, 

1 Al-Tawassul wa al-Wasilah, p. 52, first edition. 

then one has to admit that he must have been at least  equal to others, especially if we bear in mind whom he  taught such as Abu Hanifah, the Imam of Hanafi  Muslims who attended Imam Sadiq’s lectures for two  years.  

People who are educated or who seek the truth are  expected, therefore, to examine all Islamic sources  available, and thereby come to a conclusion about the  ways Muslims can lead exemplary lives. Certainly one  rich source is the teachings of the household of the  Prophet.  

Now, let us see whether it is necessary to refer to the  household of the Prophet in understanding Islam. To  provide an answer I will focus only on some traditions  from the Prophet narrated by great Sunni narrationists  and accepted by both Sunni and Shi‘a scholars. But  prior to that it has to be noted that all the teachings of  the household of the Prophet were always based on  the Glorious Qur’an and the Sunnah of the Prophet.  No one should think, for example, that Imam Sadiq  was saying something according to his own opinion  about Islam. Whatever they uttered was exactly what  they had themselves received from the Prophet. There  are many traditions in this regard. For example, in Usul  al-Kafi we find that Imam Sadiq said that whatever he  said was what he had received through his forefathers  from the Prophet.  

One of these traditions is the famous tradition of 

Thaqalayn. This tradition was uttered by the Prophet  on different occasions, including the day of ‘Arafah in  his last pilgrimage and the 18th of Dhu’l-Hijjah in 

Ghadir Khum. Despite minor differences in the  wording the essence remains the same in all versions  of the tradition. For example, in one version of the  tradition the Prophet said: 

Oh people! I leave among you two 

precious things: the Book of God and my 

household. As long as you hold on to 

them you will not go astray. 

Or in another tradition the Prophet said:  I leave among you two precious things, 

which if you hold on to you will not go 

astray after me: the Book of God which is 

like a rope extended between the heaven 

and the earth, and my household. These 

two things will not separate from each 

other until they reach me near the 

fountain on the Day of Judgement. Take 

care in how you treat them after me. 

This shows that the Prophet was worried about the  way that Muslims, or at least some of them, would  treat the Qur’an and his household. In another  tradition he said: 

I leave two successors: first, the Book of 

God which is like a rope extended 

between heaven and the earth, and 

second, my household. They will not 

separate from each other until they come 

to me near the fountain of Kawthar. 

The above traditions can be found in major Sunni  sources, such as: Sahih of Muslim (Vol. 8, p. 25, No. 

2408), Musnad of Imam Ahmad (Vol. 3, p. 388, No.  10720), Sunan of Darimi (Vol. 2, p. 432), and Sahih of  Tirmidhi (Vol. 5, p. 6432, No. 3788). They are also  mentioned in books such as Usd al-Ghabah by Ibn  Athir (Vol. 2, p. 13), Al-Sunan al-Kubra by Bayhaqi  (Vol. 2, p. 198) and Kanz al-‘Ummal (Vol. 1, p. 44).   Now let us reflect on the content of the hadith, i.e. the  fact that the Prophet has left among Muslims two  weighty things: the Qur’an and his household, and that  as long as people hold on to them both, they will not  go astray. This shows that these two things must  always be in harmony with each other, and that they  never contradict each other. Otherwise, the Prophet  would not have given the instruction to follow both of  them. Moreover, the people would get puzzled about  what to do if the household of the Prophet were to tell  them to go in one direction and the Book of God says  to go in another. Although this fact is implicitly  understandable from the beginning of hadith, the  Prophet himself later explicitly confirmed this fact by  saying, “They will not separate from each other until  they come to me near the fountain of Kawthar”.   Thus, this hadith in all versions indicates that: 

• From the time of the Prophet until the end of the  world the Book of God and the household of the  Prophet will always be together. 

• No one can say that the book of God is enough,  and that we do not need the household of the  Prophet, or vice versa, for the Prophet clearly  said: I leave two precious things that you must  grasp and if you do so you will not be misled.  

• The household of the Prophet would never make  mistakes and they are always truthful. 

• It is also interesting that according to this hadith  the household of the Prophet, like the Qur’an  itself, is held to be persistent until the Day of  Judgement and Paradise. Thus, the household of  the Prophet will never disappear, even for a short  period of time.  

The other hadith is the hadith of Safīnah (ship). All  Muslims have narrated that the Prophet said:  Be aware that surely the example of my 

household among you is like the example 

of the ship of Noah. Whoever boarded 

the ship of Noah was saved and whoever 

refused to enter the ship of Noah was 

drowned. 

The hadith of Safïnah in its different versions  emphasises the same fact and can be found in  different Sunni books. For example, it can be found in 

Mustadrak by Hakim Nishaburi, Vol. 3, pp. 149 & 151, 

Arba‘in Hadith by Nabahani, al-Sawa‘iq al-Muhriqah by  Ibn Hajar amongst other sources.   Thus, according to these sets of traditions the appeal  to the guidance of the household of the Prophet is of  the utmost necessity.  

Note: The tradition of thaqalayn is mentioned in both  Sunni and Shi‘a sources so it is a matter of agreement  among all Muslims. However, there is a version of the  hadith in which the Prophet is quoted as saying ‘my  Sunnah’ instead of ‘my household’. This version can only be found in some Sunni sources. Provided that  this version too can be authenticated, there is no  difficulty in understanding what this tradition means.  The Prophet in many traditions narrated by all  Muslims has said: “I am leaving two precious things  and those are the glorious Qur’an and my household.”  In a few traditions narrated only by a particular group  of Muslims he has said: “the glorious Qur’an and my  Sunnah”. Obviously the result would be that as one  side of the comparison is the same, i.e. the Qur’an, the  other side too must be identical. Therefore, ‘my  Sunnah’ and ‘my household’ also must be identical;  otherwise one has to say that there is no harmony in  what the Prophet said. Thus, the very act of resorting  to the teachings and advice of the household of the  Prophet is the very act of resorting to the Sunnah of  the Prophet. Thus, the only way to reach the Sunnah  of the Prophet and to understand exactly what his  Sunnah was, is to refer to these people who have had  the closest relationship with him and who knew better  than anyone else what he said or did or approved.  

Who constitute the household of the Prophet? 

The other question concerns the exact meaning of  “the household”. According to many traditions, we are  told to refer to the household of the Prophet: “Ahlul  Bayt” or “‘Itrah”. What do these terms refer to? There  is no doubt about the status of the household of the  Prophet in Islam, but there may be a need to  investigate the referent of the term to see whether it  includes anyone who was a relative of the Prophet or  not. Of course, there is no doubt among Muslims that  certainly Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet, Imam Ali, and their sons Imam Hasan and Imam Husayn are  members of his household. The only concern is  whether other relatives of the Prophet are included or  not, and if so, to what extent.   Sunni Muslims believe that all relatives of the Prophet  are included. Of course, they exclude those who did  not embrace Islam, such as Abu Lahab, one of the  uncles of the Prophet and at the same time one of his  most hostile enemies who has been cursed in the  Qur’an. Shi‘a Muslims believe that the Ahlul Bayt are  those who have appropriate levels of faith and  knowledge that make it possible for them to be  mentioned along with the Qur’an in the tradition of  the Thaqalayn and others. Moreover, they believe that  the Prophet himself has clearly defined who the Ahlul  Bayt are.  

In what follows, I will mention some hadiths narrated  in major Sunni sources: 

(1) Muslim narrates from ‘Ayishah, Umm alMu’minin:  

The Prophet went out wearing a black 

woollen cloak, when Hasan the son of Ali 

came to him, so the Prophet let Hasan 

come in with him under the cloak. Then 

Husayn came and he too entered. Then 

Fatimah came. She entered as well. Then 

Ali came. He also went under the cloak, 

such that the cloak covered the Prophet, 

Ali, Fatimah, Hasan and Husayn. Then 

the Prophet recited: ‘God only desires to 

keep away impurity from you, O People of the House! And to purify you a 

(thorough) purification’ (33:33).1 

(2) Muslim narrates from Sa‘d b. Abi Waqqas that he  was asked by Mu‘awiyah why he refused to verbally  abuse Ali. Sa‘d replied: 

I remember three sayings of the Prophet 

about Ali which caused me not to say 

anything bad about him. If I possessed 

even one of these qualities it would be 

better for me than red camels.2 The first 

was that when the Prophet wanted to go 

to the war of Tabuk, he left Ali in Medina. 

Ali was very sad at not having the good 

fortune to join the army and fight for the 

sake of God. He went to the Prophet, 

saying: ‘Do you leave me with children 

and women?’ The Prophet replied: ‘Are 

you not happy to be to me as Aaron was 

to Moses, except that there will be no 

prophet after me?’ Second I heard from 

the Prophet on the day of conquest of 

Khaybar: ‘Certainly I will give the flag [of 

Islam] to a man that loves God and His 

Messenger and is loved by God and His 

Messenger’. We hoped to be given the 

flag, but the Prophet said: ‘Call Ali for 

me!’ Ali came while suffering from pain in 

his eyes. The Prophet gave him the flag 

                                                 

1 Sahih of Muslim, Vol. 4, p. 1883, No. 2424. (Kitab Fada’il alSahabah, Bab Fada’il Ahlul Bayt, Sakhr serial no. 4450) 

2 Red camels were considered very valuable at the time. 

and at his hands God granted us victory. 

Third when the verse of Mubahalah was 

revealed the Prophet called Ali, Fatimah, 

Hasan and Husayn and said: ‘My Lord! 

These are my household’.1 

(3) Imam Ahmad b. Hanbal narrates from Anas b.  Malik that when the verse of tañhir (33:33) was  revealed, for six months the Prophet used to call at  the house of Ali and Fatimah every morning on his  way to the mosque for the Dawn Prayer and say:   Prayer, O People of the House! ‘God only 

desires to keep away impurity from you, O 

People of the House! And to purify you a 

(thorough) purification’ (33:33).2  

There are also traditions about the meaning of Qurbā  (near ones) which has been mentioned several times in  the Qur’an. For example, according to the Qur’an, the  Prophet did not ask any payment in return for his  teachings from the people. He only wanted the people  to love his Qurbā for their own benefit. So who are  the Qurbā? Zamakhshari, a great Sunni scholar and  exegete of the Qur’an, says that when this verse was  revealed, the Prophet was asked who is meant by this 

                                                 

1Sahih of Muslim, Vol. 4, p. 1871, no. 2408. (Kitab Fada’il alSahabah, Sakhr serial No. 4420). 

2 Musnad of Imam Ahmad b. Hanbal, Sakhr serial no. 13231. See  also Sunan of al-Tirmidhi, Sakhr serial no. 3130.  

verse, and to whom all have to be respectful. The  Prophet replied: “Ali, Fatimah and their two sons”.1 

Reason 

The Shi‘a believe that reason is a reliable source of  knowledge and in complete harmony with revelation.  According to some hadiths, God has two proofs  (hujjah), through which humans can understand His  Will: the internal one which is reason (al-‘aql) and the  external, which are the prophets. Sometimes reason is  called, “the internal prophet” and the prophets are  called “the external reason”. There is an established  rule among Shi‘a jurists that whatever judgement is  made by reason is the same as that made by the  religion (shar‘) and vice versa. It is also unanimously  accepted that one of the conditions of moral or legal  responsibility is to have sound reason. If someone is  insane, he is not considered as responsible for his  actions. What is expected of the people in religion also  varies according to their mental and rational capacity.  Those who are very clever and intelligent are expected  to be more prepared, pious, and obedient than those  who are lay or ignorant.  

According to the Qur’an, God requires all human  beings to exercise their rational faculty and to ponder  on His signs and communications in the universe. On  many occasions disbelievers are condemned because  of their failure to think or to act according to rational  requirements. For example, they are condemned 

                                                 

1 Al-Kashshaf by Zamakhshari, Commentary on the verse 42:23,  Vol. 4, p. 220. 

because of their blind imitation of their ancestors, and  there are many verses with rhetorical questions, such  as: “Do not they think?!” (36:68), “Do not they  ponder on the Qur’an?!” (4:82; 47:24) and “In these,  there are signs for those who are thoughtful” (13:4;  16:67; 30:28).  

In general, reason contributes to religious studies in  three major areas: The first is in understanding the  realities of the world, such as the existence of God,  the truth of religion and scientific facts. The second is  in introducing principles of moral values and legal  norms, such as the evil of oppression and the good of  justice. The third is in setting up standards and logical  processes of reasoning and inference. All these three  roles of reason are recognised and, indeed,  recommended by Islam.  

In contrast, the role of revelation or the Scriptures in  religious studies can be summed up as follows: 

? confirmation of the facts that are already  known by reason; 

? introducing new subjects that are not known  by reason, such as details of resurrection and 

detailed accounts of moral and legal systems; 

? providing sanctions through the religious  system of reward and punishment. 

To conclude I should mention that there is nothing  irrational in Islam. Of course, one has to distinguish  between certain and decisive rational judgements, and  one’s guessing or personal opinions. If there is a case  in which it seems that rational judgement is in conflict with certain religious positions, one has to accept that  there must be a mistake in at least one side: either it  was not a real judgement of reason or it was not a  religious law. God never misleads people by telling  them to do something through the prophets, and the  opposite thing through our God-given reason. There  have always been some judgements attributed to  reason and taken as contradicting religious positions  that after close consideration have proven to be  contrary to decisive rational premises.   

Consensus  

Traditionally, one of the sources of understanding  Islam is consensus (ijmā‘). According to Shi‘a  methodology of thought, the consensus of all people  or a group of them such as the scholars by itself is not  sufficient as a proof (hujjah); just as one person may  make mistake, two, three, or thousands, or even all of  them may do so. However, whenever there exists an  agreement among all Muslims or Muslim scholars in a  way whereby the agreement unveils the Sunnah, it can  serve as a proof, as an instrument to uncover the will  of God. For example, when we find that every Muslim  in the time of the Prophet said his prayer in a certain  way we realize that the Prophet had instructed them to  do so; otherwise there would be no factor to unify  their action. It is not possible to imagine that they had  all acted blindly and without instruction, or that they  all made mistakes and the Prophet did not correct  them. 

Thus, for the Shi‘a consensus in itself is not a proof. It  only works when it leads to the discovery of Sunnah.  Accordingly, if Muslims today agree on a given  subject, while a scholar has doubt about the Islamic  judgement on that subject, he methodologically cannot  say that because everybody says so, I also say the  same. There have been many cases in the history  where all human beings believed in the same way and  later they found out that they were wrong, e.g. the  earth being flat. It is only the Qur’an and the Sunnah  that are unquestionably true and immune from any  error or mistake.  

This approach grants a type of dynamism to Shi‘i  thought, so that every generation of scholars and even  any single scholar is able and indeed is required to  refer directly to the Qur’an and Sunnah and conduct  his own original ijtihād, that is his investigation and  independent judgement. Ijtihād has never been banned  or closed in the Shi‘a world. The Shi‘a believe that the  view of no jurist, however high his position, is  immune from scientific questioning or challenge. Of  course, as in any other discipline, every religious  scholar needs to consult and examine carefully the  works of his predecessors. 

Chapter 3 

DOCTRINES 

Throughout the history of Islam, Muslims, in spite of  their differences, have had a lot of agreement, not only  in many principles of Islam, but also in many of its  practices. The Qur’an and the great personality of the  Prophet on the one hand, and the sincere love and  devotion of all Muslims towards them on the other,  have unified Muslims and made out of them a real  nation that has its own identity, heritage, aims,  objectives and destiny. The hostility of the enemies of  Islam, along with the challenges of the age, have also  helped to awaken and strengthen the sense of unity  and brotherhood among Muslims. The Qur’anic and  prophetic call for unity and brotherhood has always  been echoed by great leading Islamic personalities of  different schools of Islam.  

With respect to beliefs, all Muslims share the belief in  God and His unity, the prophets in general and the  mission of the Prophet Muhammad in particular, the  Resurrection, and the just and equal treatment of  everybody on the Day of Judgement. These are the  most fundamental principles of Islam which are agreed  upon by all Muslims. An outside view about the extent  of the agreement between Shi‘a and Sunni Muslims is  expressed in the following passage: 

Since the Iranian Revolution everyone 

knows that Shi‘ites are Muslims, like the 

Sunnis respecting the central dogma of the 

oneness of God, the same sacred writing 

(the Koran), the same Prophet 

Mohammad, the same belief in the 

resurrection followed by the last 

Judgement and the same fundamental 

obligations, prayer, fasting, pilgrimage, 

almsgiving, and jihād (holy war). These 

common points are more important than 

the differences: there is no longer any 

theoretical objection to a Shi‘ite 

performing his prayers with a Sunni, or 

vice versa although many difficulties have 

existed in the past and in practice still 

remain.1  

In what follows, we will proceed by outlining  principles of religion or articles of faith. Some of the  characteristic beliefs of the Shi‘a will be examined  thereafter.2  

Principles of religion 

(1) Unity of God 

The Islamic faith is formulated by the declaration of  two facts, i.e. that there is no god (i.e. no one worthy 

                                                 

1 Richard, Shi‘ite Islam, p. 5 (with abbreviation). 

2 One of the sources of the following discussions on the  principles and practices of Islam is “An Introduction to Islam” by  Bashir Rahim. For an online version of this article and other  introductions to Islam, see http://www.al-islam.org. 

of worship) but God (Allah) and that Muhammad is  His messenger. (LÅ ILÅHA ILLALLÅH  MUHAMMADUR- RASŪLULLÅH). Muslims  believe that Allah is ONE. He has no partner or  children. He is the Beginning and He is the End. He is  Omnipotent, Omniscient and Omnipresent. The  Qur’an says that He is closer to man than his jugular  vein, but He cannot be seen by eyes or encompassed  by human intellect. In a supplication, Imam Ali says:   Oh God, verily I ask Thee by Thy Name, 

in the name of Allah, the All-merciful, the 

All-compassionate, O the Possessor of 

Majesty and Splendour, the Living, the 

Self-subsistent, the Eternal, there is no 

God other than Thee.  

Divine justice:  Among divine attributes the Shi‘a  put a great emphasis on justice. Of course, all Muslims  believe that God is just (‘ādil), in that God never  commits any injustice towards His servants, and He  never oppresses anyone. This fact is clearly expressed  by the Qur’an: 

God is not in the least unjust to the servants. 

(3:182 & 8:51 & 22:10) 

Your Lord is not in the least unjust to the servants. 

(41:46) 

I am not in the least unjust to the servants. (50:29) 

Surely God does not do injustice to the weight of an 

atom. (4:40) 

Surely God does not do any injustice to people, but 

people are unjust to themselves. (10:44)1 

In addition to the importance of divine justice in itself,  the other reason for the emphasis on this doctrine by  the Shi‘a is that there has been a controversy about  this issue among the Muslim theologians. The  Ash‘arites, a group of Sunni theologians, believe that  there is no objective criteria for morally right or wrong  acts. Good means what God performs or whatever is  commanded by God. Therefore, God’s acts and  commands are good and just by definition. They  believe that if God had asked us to tell lies, telling lies  would have become good and if God were to send the  pious people to hell that would be just. Of course,  they believe that God never does such acts, not  because they are wrong in themselves, but because in  practice He has said that those acts are wrong. The  Ash‘arites also believe that human beings do not have  free-will and it is God who creates their acts without  them having any role therein. They are only  receptacles of divine acts. 

The Shi‘a and some other Sunni theologians, such as  the Mu‘tazilites, believe that good and bad, and right  and wrong are objective, and that there are rational  criteria for moral judgements. In other words, they  believe in intrinsic goodness and badness. They  believe that in reality there is a difference between, say,  justice and oppression and it is not arbitrary that God 

                                                 

1 There are many more verses in the Qur’an affirming divine  justice. 

has commanded us to be just and not to oppress  anyone, even our enemies. They also believe that  human beings are free and responsible for their acts.  Of course, the Mu‘tazilites believe in tafwī?, i.e. that  God has handed over His authority over human  voluntary acts to them and they have complete control  over their acts. But the Shi‘a believe that although  determinism (jabr) is wrong and against divine justice,  and that human beings are free, their freedom and  power is limited, and God has an overall authority  upon their acts. This fact is expressed in the wellknown formulation of Imam Ja‘far al-Sadiq:   There is no compulsion (jabr), nor is there 

absolute delegation of power (tafwī?), but 

the real position is between the two 

extremes.1 

Due to the ultimate importance of this subject for any  value system, the Shi‘a have always stressed the  doctrine of divine justice and have frequently  introduced it along with tawhīd (divine unity),  prophethood, Imamate (divine leadership) and  Resurrection as one of the five Principles of the Faith  (Usūl al-Madhhab) in contrast to tawhīd, prophethood  and resurrection which count as the three Principles of  Religion (Usūl al-Dīn), which are shared by all Muslims.   This emphasis on the issue of divine justice has not  been limited to the theoretical aspect of Shi‘i Islam.  Indeed, the Shi‘a see the issue of justice as a 

                                                 

1 Al-Saduq, Muhammad b. Ali b. Husayn b. Babawayh, Al-Tawhid  (Qum: Jamā ‘at al-Mudarrisin), p. 362. 

fundamental aspect of Islam, and they have always  called for the implementation of the principle of  justice on the social level as well.   

(2) Prophethood 

God has created mankind for a purpose (51:56). He  has given man reason and free-will to find his way  towards his perfection and happiness. He has also  supplemented the human reason with divine  revelation. Through His wisdom and justice, He has  not left any people or corner of the world without  guidance; He has sent prophets to all nations to  instruct and guide them (10:47 and 16:36).  The first prophet was Adam and the last was  Muhammad, the Seal of prophets (33:40). The Qur’an  mentions twenty-five of the prophets and states that  there were many more (40:78). Through the  indications of hadiths, Muslims believe that there have  been 124,000 prophets. Amongst those mentioned in  the Qur’an are Adam, Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac,  Lot, Jacob, Joseph, Job, Moses, Aaron, Ezekiel, David,  Solomon, Jonah, Zachariah, John the Baptist, Jesus  and Muhammad. Among them, Noah, Abraham,  Moses, Jesus and Muhammad had universal missions  and brought new codes of law. They are called, “Ulū  al-‘Azm” meaning those of great determination.   Other than itself, the Qur’an speaks of four Heavenly  books: the Book of Abraham (87:19); the Psalms of  David (4:163 and 17:55); the Torah of Moses (2:87, 3:3  & 4, 6:91 & 154) and the Gospel of Jesus (5:46).  

A Muslim must believe in all the Holy Books (2:4 &  285) and in all the prophets (4:152). As we will see  later, the Shi‘a also believe that all the prophets were  necessarily infallible and sinless prior to and during  their mission.  

The Shi‘a, like other Muslims, have a great love for the  Prophet Muhammad. They see in the Prophet  Muhammad the perfect model of entire reliance on  God, profound knowledge of God, ultimate devotion  to God, sincere obedience to the divine Will, the  noblest of character, and compassion and mercy for all  mankind. It was not accidental that he was chosen by  God to deliver His final and most perfect message for  humanity. To be able to receive divine revelation and  be addressed by God requires one to possess a very  high calibre. Naturally to be able to receive the most  perfect revelation requires the highest calibre.  The personal character and behaviour of the Prophet  contributed greatly to the progress of Islam. He was  known to be an honest, trustworthy and pious person  from childhood. During his prophethood, he always  lived by his principles and values. In the times of ease  as well as difficulty, security as well as fear, peace as  well as war, victory as well as defeat, he always  manifested humility, justice and confidence. He was so  humble that he never admired himself, he never felt  superior to others and he never lived a life of luxury.  Both when he was alone and powerless as well as  when he ruled the Arab peninsula and Muslims were  whole-heartedly following him, he behaved the same.  He lived very simply and was always with the people,  especially the poor. He had no palace nor guard. When he was sitting with his companions no one could  distinguish him from others by considering his seat or  clothes. It was only his words and spirituality that  distinguished him from others.  He was so just that he never ignored rights of anyone,  even his enemies. He exemplified in his life the  Qur’anic command, “O you who believe! Be upright  for God, bearers of witness with justice, and let not  hatred of a people incite you not to act equitably; act  equitably, that is nearer to piety” (5:8).  Before battles, he always gave instructions to his  soldiers not to harm women, children, the elderly, and  those who surrendered, not to destroy farms and  gardens, not to chase those who had escaped from the  war front, and to be kind to their captives.   Just before his demise, the Prophet announced in the  Mosque: “Whoever among you feels that I have done  injustice to him, come forward and do justice. Surely,  enacting justice in this world is better in my view than  being taken account of in the Hereafter in front of the  angels and the Prophets.”  

Those present in the Mosque wept, for they were  reminded of all the sacrifices that the Prophet had  made for them and the troubles that he had undergone  in order to guide them. They knew that he never gave  any priority to his own needs and never preferred his  comfort and convenience to others. They therefore  responded with statements of deep gratitude and  profound respect. But one among them, Sawadah b.  Qays, stood up and said: “May my father and mother  be your ransom! O Messenger of God! On your return from Ta’if, I came to welcome you while you were  riding your camel. You raised your stick to direct your  camel, but the stick struck my stomach. I do not know  whether this strike was intentional or unintentional.”  The Prophet replied: “I seek refuge from God from  having done so intentionally.”   The Prophet then asked Bilal to go to the house of  Fatimah and bring the same stick. After the stick was  brought, the Prophet told Sawadah to retaliate by  hitting him back. Sawadah said that the stick had  struck the skin of his stomach. The Prophet therefore  lifted his shirt so that Sawadah could in return strike  his skin. At that moment, Sawadah asked: “O  Messenger of God! Do you allow me to touch my  mouth to your stomach?” The Prophet gave him  permission. Sawadah then kissed the stomach of the  Prophet and prayed that because of this act of his,  God would protect him from fire on the Day of  Resurrection. The Prophet said: “O Sawadah! Will you  pardon me or do you still wish to retaliate?” He  replied: “I pardon you.” The Prophet then prayed: “O  God! Pardon Sawadah b. Qays as he pardoned Your  Prophet, Muhammad!”1 

Imāmah: As mentioned earlier, the Shi‘a believe in  the institution of Imāmah as a continuation of  prophethood. In Arabic the term “Imām” literally  means “leader”. An Imam, in general terminology,  may be good or bad, and the extent of his leadership  may be very broad, such as leading a whole nation, or 

                                                 

1 Mustadrak Wasa’il al-Shi‘ah, Vol. 18, pp. 287 & 288.  

limited such as leading congregations in a mosque.  However, in the Shi‘i faith the Imam in its narrower  sense is the person who is in charge of all political and  religious affairs of the Islamic nation. More exactly,  the Imam is the person who is appointed by God and  introduced by the Prophet and then by each preceding  Imam by explicit designation (nass) to lead the Muslim  community, interpret and protect the religion and the  law (shari‘ah), and guide the community in all affairs.  The Imam is the Representative of God on earth  (khalifat-Allāh) and the successor of the Prophet. He  must be sinless and possess divine knowledge of both  the exoteric and the esoteric meaning of the Qur’an.  

The Sunni View: Sunni Muslims use the term Imam  as an equivalent to the term “Caliph” (khalifah). In  Arabic the term “khalifah” means successor. The term  has been used as a title for whoever took the power  and ruled the Islamic state after the demise of the  Prophet Muhammad. A Caliph may be elected, or  nominated by his predecessor, or selected by a  committee, or may even acquire power through  military force. A Caliph need not be sinless. Neither  does he need to be superior to others in qualities, such  as faith or knowledge. 

The Twelver Shi‘a who constitute the vast majority of  Shi‘a Muslims believe that the Prophet was succeeded  by twelve Imams.1 These are:  

                                                 

1 There is a series of hadiths, in which the prophet mentioned  that there would be twelve leaders after him. For example,  Bukhari reports that the Prophet said: “There will be twelve 

1. Imam Ali b. Abu Talib1             Martyred 40/659  

 2. Imam Hasan b. Ali   

3. Imam Husayn b. Ali   

4. Imam Ali b. Husayn  

 5. Imam Muhammad b. Ali  

 6. Imam Ja‘far b. Muhammad  

 7. Imam Musa b. Ja‘far  

 8. Imam Ali b. Musa  

 9. Imam Muhammad b. Ali   

10. Imam Ali b. Muhammad   

11. Imam Hasan b. Ali  

Martyred 50/669   Martyred 61/680   Martyred 95/712   Martyred 114/732   Martyred 148/765   Martyred 183/799   Martyred 203/817   Martyred 220/835   Martyred 254/868   Martyred 260/872  

                                                                                       

leaders (amír) after me.” Then the narrator says that the Prophet  said something that he could not hear. He asked his father, who  too was present at the time, to tell him what the Prophet had  said. His father said that the Prophet had said: “All these twelve  leaders will be from the tribe of Quraysh.” (Sahih of Bukhari,  Kitab al-Ahkam, Chapter 51 on al-Istikhlaf) Muslim also reports  this tradition, saying that the narrator of this tradition went with  his father to the place where the Prophet was, and the Prophet  said: “This religion will not end until there will have been twelve  successors (khalifah)”. Then the narrator says: “The Prophet said  something I did not understand and I asked my father. He said,  the Prophet said: ‘They are all from Quraysh’.” (Sahih of Muslim,  Kitab al-Imarah, Chapter: the people follow Quraysh and that  caliphate is in Quraysh) 

1 As we saw earlier, Imam Ali was the Prophet`s cousin and sonin-law (the husband of the Lady Fatimah). He was the first man  who embraced Islam. 

12. Imam al-Mahdi  Born 255/868.  

The belief in a saviour is shared by most (if not all)  religions. In Islam, the idea of a saviour is very  deliberately presented in the doctrine of al-Mahdi (the  Guided) who will rise up with divine blessing and fill  the earth with justice after it has been filled with  injustice and oppression. The idea of a saviour or a  good end for the world is indicated in many Qur’anic  verses and Islamic hadiths. For example, we read in  the Qur’an:  

We have written in the Psalms following the 

Reminder: “My honourable servants shall inherit 

the earth” (21:105). 

Yet we wanted to endow those who were considered 

inferior on earth, and make them into leaders and 

make them [Our] heirs (28:5). 

The following are only some examples of hadiths on  the same idea of the saviour narrated in both Sunni  and Shi‘a sources:  

1. The Prophet said: 

Even if the entire duration of the world's 

existence has already been exhausted and 

only one day is left (before the day of 

judgment), God will expand that day to 

such a length of time, as to accommodate 

the kingdom of a person from my 

household who will be called by my 

name.1 

2. The Prophet also said:  

Al-Mahdi is one of us, the members of 

the household (Ahlul-Bayt). God will 

prepare for him (his affairs) in one night.2 

3. Furthermore, the Prophet said: 

Al-Mahdi will be of my family, of the 

descendants of Fatimah.3 

4. It is also narrated from Jabir b. Abdillah alAnsari that he heard the Messenger of God  saying:  

A group of my nation will fight for the 

truth until the Day of Judgment. When 

Jesus son of Mary will descend, and their 

leader will ask him to lead the prayer, 

Jesus will decline, saying: “No, verily 

                                                 

1 Sunan of al-Tirmidhi, Kitab al-Fitan, Sakhr serial no. 2156 &  2157 and Sunan of Abu Dawud, Kitab al-Mahdi, Sakhr serial no.  3733 & 3734. According to Abu Dawud, the hadith ends with,  “He will fill out the earth with justice as it will have been full of  injustice and oppression.” See also Musnad of Ahmad, Musnad al‘Asharah al-Mubashsharin bi al-Jannah, Sakhr serial no. 734 and 

Sunan of Ibn Majah, Kitab al- Jihād, serial no. 2769.  

2 Sunan of Ibn Majah, Kitab al-Fitan, Sakhr serial no. 4075 and 

Musnad of Ahmad, Musnad al-‘Asharah al-Mubashsharin bi alJannah, Sakhr serial no. 610.  

3 Sunan of Abu Dawud, Kitab al-Mahdi, Sakhr serial no. 3735. See  also Sunan of Ibn Majah, Kitab al-Fitan, Sakhr serial no. 4076. 

among you God has made leaders for 

others in order to honour this nation”.1 

Thus, al-Mahdi will have a universal mission. His  name will be the same as the name of the Prophet  Muhammad and he will be from the progeny of the  Lady Fatimah. The Shi‘a believe that he is the son of  Imam Hasan al-‘Askari. He was born in 255 (A.H).  His occultation began in the year 260 (A.H). He is still  alive, but protected by God in the state of occultation  till preparations are made for his reappearance. The  same is believed by some Sunni scholars, while some  other Sunni scholars believe that he has not yet been  born. Sayyid Muhsin al-Amin in his A‘yān al-Shi‘ah has  named thirteen examples of those Sunni scholars who  have asserted that al-Mahdi is the son of Imam Hasan  and already born, such as Muhammad b. Yousuf alKanjī al-Shafi‘ī in his Al-Bayān fī Akhbār Sāhib al-Zamān  and Kifāyat al-Tālib fī Manāqib Ali b. Abī Tālib; Nūr alDīn Ali b. Muhammad al-Mālikī in his Al-Fusūl alMuhimmah fī Ma‘rifat al-A’immah and Ibn al-Jawzī in his  well-known Tadhkirat al-Khawāss. 

(3) Resurrection 

The world will come to an end on the Day of the  Resurrection (Qiyāmah), the Day of Judgement. All will  be resurrected and presented before God who will  decide their individual fates according to their beliefs  and deeds in this world. Good will be rewarded and 

                                                 

1 Sahih of Muslim, Kitab al-Iman, Sakhr serial no. 225 and Musnad  of Ahmad, Baqi Musnad al-Mukthirin, Sakhr serial no. 14193 &  14595.  

evil be punished (22:1, 2 & 6-9; 3:185; 6:62). God will  treat people with justice but the dominant factor in the  administration of His Justice will be His Mercy (6:12).  

Note: 

Although all Muslims believe in the above principles  of Islam, there is a slight difference in their articulation  of these beliefs and practices. Shi‘a Muslims express  the above beliefs as principles or roots of the religion  (Usūl al-Dīn) and the acts of worship to follow as  practices or branches of the religion (Furū‘ al-Dīn). The  reason for such an articulation is that those beliefs are  the most fundamental aspects of the religion and the  criteria for being considered a Muslim. However, the  mandatory acts of worship are implications of being  faithful, since genuine faith manifests itself in  practices. Sunni Muslims usually present the  declaration of Islam (kalimah) consisting of bearing  witness that there is no god but God (Allah) and that  Muhammad is His Messenger together with four acts  of worship, i.e. the daily prayer, fasting, pilgrimage to  Mecca and almsgiving as the Five Pillars of Faith.  They consider other acts of worship such as enjoining  good and forbidding evil, and struggle in the way of  God as obligatory acts that are not included amongst  the Pillars of Faith. 

Chapter 4 

PRACTICES 

The main mandatory acts of worship accepted by both  Sunni and Shi‘a Muslims are:  

1. The Daily Prayers 

Every Muslim from the time he or she attains puberty  must perform five daily prayers (salāt). To be able to  begin the prayer one must first perform the ritual  ablution (wu?ū) in the prescribed form. Then, one  stands facing Mecca and makes an intention to  perform the specific prayer of the time in order to  attain proximity to God. This intention must be kept  at all times during the prayer. If someone forgets what  he is doing, or prays in order to show off, or for any  other selfish motive, his prayer becomes void. The  actual prayer starts when the person utters: Allāh-u  Akbar (God is the Greatest). With this he enters the  formal state of prayer in which he remains until the  completion of his prayers.  

Each prayer consists of two to four units (rak‘ah). 1  Each unit consists of:  

                                                 

1 The morning prayer (fajr) which is performed between dawn  and sunrise consists of two units, the noon (zuhr) and afternoon  prayers (‘asr) each consist of four units, the sunset prayer (maghrib) 

consists of three units and the evening (‘ishā’) consists of four  units.  

 

i. reciting the opening chapter of the Qur’an and  another chapter such as Tawhīd or Qadr;1  

ii. bowing down (rukū‘) and praising and  glorifying God in that position; 

iii. performing two prostrations (sajdah) and then  praising and glorifying God. 

The prayers are ended by bearing witness that God is  One and has no partners and that Muhammad is His  servant and messenger with salutations upon him and  his household (tashahhud) and offering peace to the  Prophet, all the righteous people, and all who are  engaged in prayers (taslim).  

The daily prayer is the most important form of  worship and remembrance of the Lord. The Qur’an  says: 

Surely prayer keeps (one) away from indecency 

and evil, and certainly the remembrance of God is 

greater, and God knows what you do. (29:45) 

 

                                                                                       

1 In three unit and four unit prayers the third and fourth units  consist first of recitation of the opening chapter of the Qur’an, or  alternatively, recitation of a specific remembrance (dhikr) called,  “al-tasbīhāt al-arbi‘ah” (Four Glorifications) and then bowing down  and prostrations. In these prayers the affirmation of the oneness  of God and the prophethood of the Prophet Muhammad and  salutations upon him and his household are performed in both  the second unit and the last unit after prostrations. 

2. Fasting 

The second act of worship is fasting (sawm) during the  month of Ramadan (rama?ān), the ninth month of the  Islamic calendar. In this month, Muslims refrain from  eating, drinking and sexual activity with their spouses  from dawn to sunset.1 Like any other acts of worship,  fasting must be performed with pure intention, that is,  solely for the sake of God and to attain proximity to  Him. Along with closeness to God and achieving His  pleasure, fasting has many other benefits, such as  strengthening one’s determination, reminding people  of God’s blessings which they may take for granted,  such as the food that they enjoy everyday,  remembering the hunger and thirst of the Day of  Judgement, helping the rich to understand what the  poor experience in order to awaken their sense of  benevolence and sympathy, weakening one’s appetites  and lower desires, and letting rational understanding  and spiritual awareness flourish. The Qur’an says:  O you who believe! Fasting is prescribed 

for you, as it was prescribed for those 

before you, so that you may guard (against 

evil). (2:183) 

3. Pilgrimage to Mecca 

Every Muslim who has attained puberty, and is  financially and physically capable, must once perform  pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) in the month of Dhu’l-Hijjah, 

                                                 

1 Several groups of people are exempted from fasting, such as the  sick or those who travel. 

 

the twelfth month of the Islamic calendar. The most  important Mosque for Muslims all over the world is  called Masjid al-?arām, which is the sanctuary of the 

Ka‘bah, and is located in Mecca.   All Muslims face towards the Ka‘bah in their prayers.  The Ka‘bah is the cubical construction built by the  Prophet Abraham and his son, Prophet Ishmael, on  the foundations of what had originally been built by  the Prophet Adam. Indeed, to a great extent,  pilgrimage to Mecca is a symbolic reconstruction of  what the Prophet Abraham, the arch monotheist went  through in that very place about four thousand years  ago. After a long journey, when Abraham arrived in  Mecca he was asked by God to make preparations for  pilgrims going to Mecca. The Qur’an says: 

Do not associate with Me anything, and purify 

My house for those who circle around it and stand 

to pray and bow and prostrate themselves. And 

proclaim among the people the pilgrimage. They 

will come to you on foot and on every lean camel 

from every remote path so that they may witness 

the benefits for them; and mention the name of 

God during the appointed days over what He has 

given them (22:26-28). 

Most surely the first house appointed for men is 

the one at Bekka (Mecca), blessed and a guidance 

for the nations. In it are clear signs, the standing 

place of Abraham, and whoever enters it shall be 

secure. Pilgrimage to the House is incumbent upon 

people for the sake of God, (upon) everyone who is 

able to undertake the journey to it; and whoever 

turns away, then surely God is Self-sufficient, 

above any need of the worlds (3:96 &97). 

Pilgrimage to Mecca is full of unforgettable  experiences. Among them, perhaps the most  outstanding are selflessness, brotherhood, equality and  simplicity. Every year millions of Muslims from  different continents leave their home, family, business,  and whatever else is dear to them, and set out on their  journey towards Mecca, located in a desert. Everyone  is asked to be present there in the same places at the  same time all wearing the same clothes and performing  the same rites. The rich and the poor, the king and the  ordinary man, the elite and the layman all stand  shoulder to shoulder and wear two pieces of white  cloth. This is something that everyone must  experience at least once in his lifetime, and should  then try to implement lessons learnt from the  experience in his day to day life. 

4. Almsgiving  

Giving charity is highly recommended in the Qur’an  and Sunnah and the reward for charitable acts is great.  Although everything including one’s financial  possessions belongs to God in reality, the Qur’an  presents giving charity as offering a loan to God: 

Who is the one that lends to God a good lending 

so that God may give him double? (57:11) 

In addition to voluntary charities, there are certain  types of charity that are obligatory. For example, one  type of almsgiving is zakāt, a wealth tax of a small  percentage (usually 2.5%). Paying zakāt is not a gift for the poor but rather is their due right that must be  observed: 

And in their properties is the right of the beggar 

and the destitute (51:19). 

Imam Ali also said:  

God the Glorified has fixed the livelihood 

of the destitute in the wealth of the rich. 

Consequently, whenever the destitute 

remains hungry, it is because some rich 

persons have denied him his share.1 

Those whose possessions of certain amounts of  wheat, barley, dates, raisins, gold, silver, camels, cows  and sheep surpass certain quantities must pay zakāt on  a yearly basis to the less fortunate amongst their  relatives, the orphans, the needy, the wayfarers and  etc. Zakāt may be spent for food, shelter, education,  health care, orphanages and other public services.   It is noteworthy that in many verses, paying zakāt is  enjoined immediately after the command to perform  one’s prayers (salāt), and as a sign of faith and belief in  God. Paying zakāt is an act of worship, so it must be  performed for the sake of God. Therefore, not only  does it help the needy and contribute to the  establishment of social justice and development, but it  also purifies the soul of those who pay it. The Qur’an  says: 

Take alms from their wealth in order to purify and 

sanctify them (9:103). 

                                                 

1 Nahj al-Balāghah, edited by Fay? al-Islam, Wise sayings 320. 

Khums: Shi‘a Muslims also believe in another  obligatory tax, called khums. In Arabic Khums literally  means one fifth. It is a 20% tax on the excess profit  that a person annually makes. At the end of one’s  financial year, one pays 20% of all one’s earnings after  deducting house-hold and commercial expenses.1 The  obligation to pay khums has been mentioned in the  Qur’an: 

And know that whatever profit you may attain, 

one fifth of it is assigned to God and the 

Messenger, and to the near relatives [of the 

Messenger] and the orphans, the destitute, and the 

wayfarer, if you have believed in God and that 

which We sent down to our servant [Muhammad] 

(8:41). 

Sunni Muslims usually believe that the verse only  refers to what Muslims earn when they win a battle  (booty) and consider it to be a type of zakāt.   According to Shi‘i jurisprudence, half of the khums  belongs to the twelfth Imam, the remaining member  of the household of the Prophet and his successor,  and the other half to the poor descendants of the  Prophet, called “sayyids”. Khums must be spent under  the supervision of a Shi‘a religious authority (marji‘ altaqlīd), i.e. the grand jurist (Ayatollah) that one follows  in practical issues. This is to make sure that it is spent  in a way with which Imam Mahdi is pleased. The 

                                                 

1 There are other cases mentioned in Shi‘a jurisprudence in which  paying khums becomes obligatory. What has been mentioned  above is the most popular one.  

 

portion belonging to the Imam is usually spent on  Islamic seminaries and other educational projects such  as publishing useful books, or building Mosques,  Islamic centres, and schools.  

5. Struggle for the sake of God 

Every Muslim has to struggle hard and strive for the  sake of God in different ways to make improvements  to human life in general and his individual life in  particular. The Qur’an says: 

He has created you upon the Earth and has 

asked you to develop it (11:61). 

To be indifferent to human catastrophes or to be lazy  in one’s personal life is greatly condemned. On the  contrary, the one who works hard to earn some  money to spend on his family and improve their living  conditions is considered as a hero in the struggle for  the sake of God, a mujāhid. A very outstanding and  vital case of this struggle (jihād) is to defend human  rights such as liberty, freedom, and Islamic and human  values such as justice, dignity, and a Muslim nation’s  integrity. The Qur’an says:  

Permission [to fight] is given to those against 

whom war is being wrongfully and offensively 

waged, and surely God is able to give them victory. 

Those who have been expelled from their homes 

unjustly, only because they said, “Our Lord is 

God…” (22:39-40). 

And why do you not fight for the sake of God 

and the utterly oppressed men, women, and 

children who are crying out, “O Lord! Rescue us from this town whose people are oppressors, and 

raise for us from You one who will protect, and 

raise for us from You one who will help” (4:75). 

Of course, jihād also includes more personal cases in  which one’s family, property or reputation is  endangered, usurped or damaged. According to  Islamic traditions, one who is killed while defending  his family or land achieves the same position as the  soldier who is martyred in the warfront.     Jihād must continue until the just cause is achieved.  The Qur’an says: “Fight against aggressors until  oppression is stopped” (2:193). Of course, on a larger  scale, a real jihād has always existed from the dawn of  creation of mankind, between good and evil, truth and  falsehood, and between the party of God and the  party of Satan. This battle will more or less continue  till the end of the time when the earth will be filled  with justice under the government of al-Mahdi.  Jihād, whether it be with the pen, the tongue, a  weapon, or any other means is an act of worship, and  must be performed with pure intention, that is, only  for the sake of God and for just causes. No one is  allowed to fight or struggle for materialistic purposes,  for personal glory or the glory of any tribe, race,  nation, or any other oppressive cause such as  occupying others’ land to become richer or more  powerful. Indeed, jihād first of all starts within the  inner self of a mujāhid (one who struggles). To make  sure that one can win the external battle against evil,  one has to fight first against his own lower desires and  lusts, liberate his own heart from any satanic 

occupation, and regain the dignity and honour that  God the Almighty has given human beings. The  Qur’an says: 

O the soul at peace, return to your Lord, wellpleased (with Him), well-pleasing (Him). So 

enter among My true servants and enter into My 

Paradise! (89:27-30) 

According to a well-known tradition, once, the  Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him and his  family) said to a group of his companions who had  won a battle: “Well-done! Welcome to those people  who have completed the minor jihād (al- jihād al-asghar)  and on whom the major jihād (al- jihād al-akbar) is still  incumbent.” Astonished, the companions who had  defeated their enemies and were prepared to give up  the dearest thing to them, i.e. their life to defend Islam  asked, “What is the major jihād?” The Prophet  Muhammad replied: “The major jihād is to fight  against your own selves [or your souls]”. 1 Thus, to  resist one’s temptations, and restrain one’s soul from  evil, and to purify one’s self is the greatest and the  most difficult jihād.  

In conclusion let us refer to some of the merits of  those who struggle for the sake of God as explained  by God Himself: 

                                                 

1 Al-Kafi, Vol. 5, p. 12, no 3 and Al-Amali by al-Saduq, Session  71, p. 377, no 8. For an elaborate account of the subject, see 

Combat with the Self by Muhammad b. al-Hasan al-Hurr al-‘Amili,  translated by Nazmina Virjee (London: ICAS, 2003).  

Those who believe, and have left their homes and 

strive hard with their wealth and their lives in 

God's way, are much higher in rank with God. 

These are they who are triumphant. Their Lord 

gives them good tidings of mercy from Him, and 

acceptance, and Gardens where enduring pleasures 

will be theirs. There they will abide forever. Surely 

with God there is a Mighty reward (9:20-22). 

6. Enjoining good and forbidding evil 

Enjoining good (al-amr bi al-ma‘rūf) and forbidding evil  (al-nahy ‘an al-munkar) are two acts of worship that  every mature Muslim has to perform whenever  applicable. No Muslim can be indifferent to what  happens in the world around him. Part of the social  responsibilities of each individual Muslim is to observe  human and religious values, and whenever any of  these values is deliberately overlooked or violated, he  must advise and direct those responsible towards  performing good and against committing bad and  sinful acts (3:103, 109 & 113; 7:199; 9:71 & 112;  22:41).

Chapter 5 

THE SHI‘A IN THE WORLD 

Around twenty five percent of the world population  (that is, more than 1.5 billion) adhere to Islam. A  breakdown of the Muslim population of the world in  2008 is estimated as follows:1 

1 For the sources of this statistics, see Muslim Population website  at: www.islamicpopulation.com/world_general.html. According  to some other sources, the estimated percentage varies from 20 to  28.35 percent. 

 

Muslims live all over the world. The total number of  countries with Muslim inhabitants is 208.1 About 85%  of the Muslims live outside the Arab world. 2 The  majority of Muslims live to the east of the borders of  Iran, especially in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh,  Malaysia and Indonesia. Indonesia is the most  populous Muslim country. 

Among Muslims, who constitute the minority of the  world population, the Shi‘a constitute at least 10% of  the Muslim population in the world, that is, around  152,000,000. 3 For example, Britannica 2002 (Deluxe  Edition) reads: 

Over the centuries the Shi‘ite movement 

has deeply influenced all Sunnite Islam, 

and its adherents numbered about 60 to 

80 million in the late 20th century, or onetenth of all Islam. Shi‘ism (Arabic: Shi‘ah, 

or Shi‘i Islam) is the majority faith in Iran, 

Iraq, and perhaps Yemen (San‘ā') and has 

adherents in Syria, Lebanon, East Africa, 

India, and Pakistan. 

                                                 

1 Britannica, 2002, Deluxe version. 

2 For example see Islam Outside the Arab World by D. Westerland  and I. Svanberg.   

3 The rest are mostly Sunni Muslims consisting of Hanafis (can  be found in Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, Iraq and Turkey), 

Malikis (dominant in Morocco and Sudan), Shafi‘is (The Shafi‘i  school is applied in Syria, Yemen, Oman, the United Arab  Emirates, Bahrain and Kuwait, and co-exists with other schools  in Jordan and Egypt) and Hanbalis. According to MEDEA, the  entry “SUNNISM”, the Hanbali school is the official school in  Saudi Arabia and Qatar.  

 

According to some sources, the figure is 11%.1 Thus,  the present Shi‘a population of the world must be  around 132,000,000. 2 A breakdown of the Shi‘a  population in some Asian countries with a Shi‘a  majority or with a considerable percentage of Shi‘a  population can be summed up as follows:3 1 

                                                 

1 Yann Richard (1991, English translation 1995), p. 2 using mainly  figures put forward by Md-R. Djalili, Rligion et revolution, Paris,  Economica, 1981, p. 23ff, and M. Momen, An Introduction to Shi‘i  Islam, New Haven and London, Yale University Press, 1985, pp.  264ff. Thus, Richard’s figures relate to no later than 80’s. His  break down is as follows: Iraq: 55 percent or 18,000,000; Bahrain:  70 percent or about 170,000; Kuwait: 24 percent of the Kuwaiti  citizens or 137,000; Qatar: 20 percent of the population or  50,000; United Arab Emirates: 6 percent or 60,000; Saudi Arabia:  7 percent of Saudi citizens or 440,000; Lebanon: One third or  one million; India: 15 to 20 percent of Muslim population which  reaches 80 million or 12 percent of the total population (Imamis  and Ismailis); Pakistan: 12,000,000; Afghanistan: 15 percent or  about 2.5 million; Azerbijan: a large Shi‘a community (4.5  million); Turkey: 1,500,000 apart from ‘Alavites; Syria: 50,000  apart from ‘Alavites (Note: Shi‘a and Alevites together reach  4,900,000).  

2 Unfortunately, there are no accurate statistics reflecting the  exact number of Muslims in general and Shi‘a in particular. What  suggested above is according to most of the sources available on  the subject. However, it has been suggested that the Shi΄a  comprises 23% of Muslims, while the Hanafis comprise 31%; the  Malikis comprise 25%; the Shafi‘is comprise 16% and the  Hanbalis comprise 4%. See S. M. Qazwini, p. 4, taken from the  Bulletin of Affiliation: Al-Madhhab – Schools of Thought, vol.  17, no. 4 (December 1998), p. 5. 

3 The figures for populations in the text are according to the CIA  World Factbook, estimated for July 2010. Religious affiliations  are according to Britannica 2002, Deluxe Edition. Figures relate to 

the year 1998. Therefore, the populations have increased.  However, the percentages would have remained more or less the  same.